Biochemistry

Unit 1: Biochemistry – Introduction to Biological Molecules, Metabolism, Enzymes, and Vitamins

Introduction to Biological Molecules

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms. Biological molecules are the essential compounds that sustain life and include proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. These macromolecules play crucial roles in metabolism, cellular structure, energy storage, and enzymatic activities.

Proteins

Proteins are complex macromolecules composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They are fundamental to various biological functions such as enzyme catalysis, structural support, transport, immune defense, and cellular signaling.

Structure of Proteins

Proteins have four levels of structural organization:

Primary structure: The unique sequence of amino acids.
Secondary structure: Formation of alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
Tertiary structure: The three-dimensional conformation stabilized by interactions such as hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bonds.
Quaternary structure: Association of multiple polypeptide chains into a functional protein.

Classification of Proteins

Proteins are classified based on their structure and function:

Fibrous Proteins: Structural proteins such as collagen and keratin.
Globular Proteins: Functional proteins like enzymes and hemoglobin.
Conjugated Proteins: Proteins with a non-protein component, such as glycoproteins and metalloproteins.

Significance of Proteins

Proteins are vital for muscle contraction, enzymatic activity, immune defense, and cellular communication. Deficiency can lead to disorders such as kwashiorkor and marasmus.

Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. There are 20 standard amino acids, classified into essential (obtained from diet) and non-essential (synthesized by the body).

Classification of Amino Acids

Based on polarity: Polar, non-polar, acidic, and basic amino acids.
Based on essentiality: Essential (e.g., leucine, valine) and non-essential (e.g., glycine, alanine).

Significance of Amino Acids

Amino acids are essential for protein synthesis, neurotransmitter function, and metabolic pathways.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (C:H:O = 1:2:1). They are the primary source of energy for cellular functions.

Classification of Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose).
Disaccharides: Two monosaccharide units (sucrose, lactose, maltose).
Polysaccharides: Complex carbohydrates (starch, glycogen, cellulose).

Significance of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates provide energy (ATP), structural support (cellulose in plants), and storage (glycogen in animals).

Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic molecules that serve as energy reservoirs, structural components of membranes, and signaling molecules.

Classification of Lipids

Simple Lipids: Fats and oils (triglycerides).
Complex Lipids: Phospholipids and glycolipids.
Steroids: Cholesterol and steroid hormones.

Significance of Lipids

Lipids play roles in energy storage, membrane formation, hormone synthesis, and insulation.

Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism involves biochemical pathways that produce and utilize glucose for energy.

Glycolysis

Location: Cytoplasm
Key Steps: Conversion of glucose into pyruvate with ATP and NADH production.
End Products: 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 Pyruvate molecules.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

Location: Mitochondrial matrix
Key Steps: Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle, producing NADH, FADH2, and ATP.
End Products: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP per cycle.

Gluconeogenesis

Purpose: Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (amino acids, lactate).
Location: Liver and kidneys.

Glycogenesis

Purpose: Storage of glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Key Enzyme: Glycogen synthase.

Glycogenolysis

Purpose: Breakdown of glycogen into glucose for energy.
Key Enzyme: Glycogen phosphorylase.

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions without being consumed.

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Lock and Key Model: The enzyme’s active site fits the substrate precisely.
Induced Fit Model: The enzyme undergoes conformational changes upon substrate binding.

Enzyme Kinetics

Michaelis-Menten Equation: Describes the rate of enzymatic reactions.
Vmax and Km: Indicators of enzyme efficiency and substrate affinity.

Enzyme Inhibition

Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor competes with the substrate.
Non-Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds elsewhere, altering enzyme function.
Uncompetitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds only to the enzyme-substrate complex.

Enzyme Regulation

Allosteric Regulation: Binding at a site other than the active site.
Feedback Inhibition: End product inhibits the first enzyme in a pathway.

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for metabolic functions.

Types of Vitamins

Fat-Soluble Vitamins: (A, D, E, K) – Stored in the liver and fatty tissues.
Water-Soluble Vitamins: (B-complex, C) – Not stored and require regular intake.

Sources and Deficiencies

Vitamin A: Found in carrots, deficiency leads to night blindness.
Vitamin D: Obtained from sunlight, deficiency causes rickets.
Vitamin E: Found in nuts, prevents oxidative damage.
Vitamin K: Found in leafy greens, essential for blood clotting.
Vitamin B-complex: Present in whole grains, involved in energy metabolism.
Vitamin C: Found in citrus fruits, prevents scurvy.

Conclusion

Biochemistry is fundamental to understanding biological molecules, metabolism, enzyme functions, and vitamins. These biochemical components and processes regulate life functions, making them essential for health, disease prevention, and medical advancements. Understanding these principles provides a foundation for applications in medicine, nutrition, and biotechnology.

Unit 2: Biochemistry – A Comprehensive Guide

Introduction to Biological Molecules

Biological molecules are essential compounds that play a pivotal role in the structure and function of living organisms. They are classified into four major categories: proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. Each of these biomolecules has a distinct structure and function, contributing to various biological processes essential for life.

Proteins and Amino Acids

Proteins are macromolecules composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. They serve a variety of functions, including enzyme catalysis, structural support, immune response, and cell signaling. Proteins are classified based on their structure and function:

Fibrous Proteins – Provide structural integrity (e.g., collagen, keratin).
Globular Proteins – Act as enzymes, transporters, and regulators (e.g., hemoglobin, insulin).
Membrane Proteins – Function as receptors and transport molecules.

Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are classified into essential (must be obtained from the diet) and non-essential (synthesized by the body). They participate in metabolic pathways, neurotransmitter synthesis, and immune function.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are classified into:

Monosaccharides – Simple sugars like glucose and fructose.
Disaccharides – Formed by two monosaccharides, such as sucrose and lactose.
Polysaccharides – Complex carbohydrates like starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

Carbohydrates serve as the primary source of energy and play a vital role in cell recognition and signaling.

Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic biomolecules essential for energy storage, membrane formation, and hormone synthesis. They include:

Triglycerides – Stored as fat for energy reserves.
Phospholipids – Major components of cell membranes.
Steroids – Include cholesterol and hormones like estrogen and testosterone.

Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism is a series of biochemical processes that convert carbohydrates into energy. The major pathways include:

1. Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. This process occurs in the cytoplasm and consists of two phases:

Energy Investment Phase – ATP is consumed to phosphorylate glucose.
Energy Payoff Phase – ATP and NADH are generated.

2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

This aerobic pathway occurs in the mitochondria and produces ATP, NADH, and FADH2 from Acetyl-CoA. The key steps include:

Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate.
Series of enzymatic reactions release CO₂, ATP, and electron carriers.
Regeneration of oxaloacetate completes the cycle.

3. Gluconeogenesis

This is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like lactate, amino acids, and glycerol. It occurs primarily in the liver and helps maintain blood glucose levels during fasting.

4. Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is the process of synthesizing glycogen from glucose for storage in liver and muscle tissues. This process is regulated by the enzyme glycogen synthase and activated by insulin.

5. Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen to release glucose, primarily in response to glucagon and epinephrine during low blood sugar levels.

Enzymes and Their Mechanism of Action

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Enzymes function as biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed. The enzyme mechanism follows the lock and key or induced fit model, involving:

Substrate Binding – The substrate binds to the active site.
Formation of Enzyme-Substrate Complex – Temporary intermediate state.
Catalysis – Chemical reaction occurs, lowering activation energy.
Product Release – The product is released, and the enzyme is free to catalyze another reaction.

Enzyme Kinetics

Enzyme activity is influenced by factors such as substrate concentration, pH, and temperature. The Michaelis-Menten equation describes the relationship between reaction rate and substrate concentration: $V=Vmax[S]Km+[S]V = \frac{V_{max} [S]}{K_m + [S]}$ where V is the reaction rate, Vmax is the maximum rate, [S] is the substrate concentration, and Km is the Michaelis constant.

Enzyme Inhibition & Regulation

Enzymes can be regulated by:

Competitive Inhibition – Inhibitor competes with the substrate for the active site.
Non-Competitive Inhibition – Inhibitor binds to a different site, altering enzyme function.
Allosteric Regulation – Binding of an effector molecule alters enzyme activity.
Feedback Inhibition – End products inhibit the initial enzyme to regulate the pathway.

Vitamins: Types, Sources, and Deficiencies

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for various metabolic functions. They are classified into:

1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins

These vitamins are stored in fat tissues and include:

Vitamin A (Retinol) – Found in carrots and dairy; essential for vision and immunity.
Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol) – From sunlight and fish; promotes calcium absorption.
Vitamin E (Tocopherol) – Present in nuts and oils; acts as an antioxidant.
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone) – Found in green leafy vegetables; crucial for blood clotting.

2. Water-Soluble Vitamins

These vitamins dissolve in water and must be consumed regularly:

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) – Found in citrus fruits; essential for collagen synthesis and immunity.
B-Complex Vitamins:
- B1 (Thiamine) – In whole grains; supports nerve function.
- B2 (Riboflavin) – Found in dairy; involved in energy metabolism.
- B3 (Niacin) – In meat and legumes; important for cellular respiration.
- B6 (Pyridoxine) – In poultry and fish; aids amino acid metabolism.
- B9 (Folate) – In leafy greens; vital for DNA synthesis.
- B12 (Cobalamin) – In animal products; necessary for red blood cell formation.

Vitamin Deficiencies

Vitamin A Deficiency – Night blindness, weak immunity.
Vitamin D Deficiency – Rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults.
Vitamin C Deficiency – Scurvy, weakened connective tissues.
Vitamin B12 Deficiency – Pernicious anemia, neurological disorders.

Conclusion

Understanding biological molecules, metabolism, enzyme action, and vitamins is crucial for comprehending life processes. These biomolecules and their metabolic pathways ensure proper cellular function, energy production, and overall health. Mastery of these topics forms the foundation of biochemistry and its applications in medicine, biotechnology, and nutrition.

Biochemistry: Unit 3 – Biological Molecules and Metabolism

Introduction to Biological Molecules

Biological molecules, also known as biomolecules, are essential components of living organisms. They play a critical role in maintaining cellular functions, metabolism, and overall physiological activities. The four major classes of biomolecules include proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. However, this unit will focus on proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, including their structure, classification, and significance.

Proteins and Amino Acids

Structure of Proteins

Proteins are complex macromolecules composed of long chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They serve structural, enzymatic, regulatory, and transport functions. Proteins exhibit different levels of structural organization:

Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids.
Secondary Structure: Formation of α-helices and β-sheets due to hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary Structure: Three-dimensional folding due to interactions between R-groups.
Quaternary Structure: Association of multiple polypeptide chains.

Classification of Proteins

Proteins are classified based on their composition and function:

Simple Proteins: Composed only of amino acids (e.g., albumin, globulin).
Conjugated Proteins: Contain a non-protein moiety (e.g., hemoglobin, glycoproteins).
Fibrous Proteins: Provide structural support (e.g., collagen, keratin).
Globular Proteins: Involved in metabolic processes (e.g., enzymes, antibodies).

Significance of Proteins

Proteins perform various biological functions such as:

Enzymatic catalysis (e.g., digestive enzymes).
Structural support (e.g., collagen in connective tissues).
Immune response (e.g., antibodies).
Transport (e.g., hemoglobin transporting oxygen).

Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Each amino acid contains:

A central carbon atom (C)
An amino group (-NH2)
A carboxyl group (-COOH)
A hydrogen atom (H)
A unique R-group (side chain) that determines the chemical properties

Classification of Amino Acids:

Essential Amino Acids: Cannot be synthesized by the body (e.g., leucine, lysine, valine).
Non-Essential Amino Acids: Can be synthesized in the body (e.g., alanine, glycine).

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic molecules consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. They serve as a primary energy source.

Structure and Classification

Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose).
Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides linked together (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

Significance of Carbohydrates

Provide energy via metabolic pathways like glycolysis.
Act as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants, chitin in insects).
Serve as storage molecules (e.g., glycogen in animals, starch in plants).

Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic biomolecules that play vital roles in energy storage, membrane formation, and signaling.

Classification of Lipids

Simple Lipids: Fats and oils (triglycerides).
Compound Lipids: Phospholipids, glycolipids.
Derived Lipids: Steroids, fat-soluble vitamins.

Significance of Lipids

Store energy efficiently.
Act as structural components of cell membranes (phospholipids).
Serve as precursors for steroid hormones and vitamins.

Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism includes several biochemical pathways that convert carbohydrates into energy.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose (C6H12O6) into two molecules of pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. This occurs in the cytoplasm and involves 10 enzymatic steps.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria, where pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA, which enters the cycle. The cycle generates NADH, FADH2, and ATP and releases CO2 as a byproduct.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, glycerol). It primarily occurs in the liver and maintains blood glucose levels during fasting.

Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is the conversion of glucose into glycogen for storage, primarily in the liver and muscles. It is regulated by the enzyme glycogen synthase.

Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose when energy is needed. The enzyme glycogen phosphorylase plays a crucial role in this process.

Enzymes and Vitamins

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy. The lock and key model and the induced fit model explain enzyme-substrate interactions.

Enzyme Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics describes the rate of enzymatic reactions. The Michaelis-Menten equation defines the relationship between substrate concentration and reaction rate.

Enzyme Inhibition & Regulation

Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to the active site.
Non-Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site.
Feedback Regulation: Product inhibits enzyme activity to regulate metabolic pathways.

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for metabolism. They are classified into water-soluble (B-complex, C) and fat-soluble (A, D, E, K).

Types, Sources & Deficiencies

Vitamin A: Found in carrots, liver; deficiency causes night blindness.
Vitamin B-complex: Found in grains, meat; deficiency causes anemia, neurological disorders.
Vitamin C: Found in citrus fruits; deficiency causes scurvy.
Vitamin D: Found in fish, synthesized by sunlight; deficiency causes rickets.
Vitamin E: Found in nuts, seeds; deficiency causes neurological problems.
Vitamin K: Found in green vegetables; deficiency causes blood clotting disorders.

Conclusion

This unit provides a comprehensive understanding of biological molecules, their classification, and metabolic pathways. Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids are vital macromolecules, each playing a crucial role in cellular function. Carbohydrate metabolism is central to energy production, with glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and gluconeogenesis being key pathways. Enzymes regulate metabolic reactions, while vitamins are essential for maintaining physiological health. Understanding these principles is fundamental to biochemistry and life sciences.

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Biochemistry: Unit 4

Introduction to Biological Molecules

Biological molecules are essential components of all living organisms, playing crucial roles in structure, function, and metabolism. The primary biological macromolecules include proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, each with distinct structures, classifications, and biological significance.

Proteins and Amino Acids

Proteins are large, complex molecules composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. These macromolecules serve structural, enzymatic, and regulatory roles. Proteins are classified into different types based on their structure and function:

Fibrous Proteins: Provide structural support (e.g., collagen, keratin)
Globular Proteins: Serve metabolic functions (e.g., enzymes, hemoglobin)
Membrane Proteins: Facilitate transport and signaling across membranes

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, classified into essential and non-essential types. Essential amino acids (e.g., leucine, lysine) must be obtained from the diet, while non-essential amino acids (e.g., alanine, glutamine) are synthesized by the body.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (C:H:O ratio of 1:2:1). They serve as a primary energy source and structural components in cells. Carbohydrates are classified into:

Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose)
Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides joined (e.g., sucrose, lactose)
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose)

Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic molecules essential for energy storage, insulation, and membrane structure. The major types of lipids include:

Triglycerides: Glycerol and three fatty acids, serving as energy reserves
Phospholipids: Key components of cell membranes
Steroids: Include cholesterol and hormones like testosterone and estrogen

Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism is essential for energy production in living organisms. The key metabolic pathways include glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycogenolysis.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the anaerobic breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. This process occurs in the cytoplasm and consists of two phases:

Energy Investment Phase: ATP is consumed to activate glucose.
Energy Payoff Phase: ATP and NADH are generated.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria and is a crucial part of cellular respiration. Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle, leading to the production of NADH, FADH2, and ATP while releasing carbon dioxide.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, such as amino acids and glycerol. This process is crucial during fasting and starvation.

Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose, primarily occurring in the liver and muscle cells. It serves as a storage mechanism for excess glucose.

Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose to meet energy demands, particularly during fasting or intense exercise.

Enzymes and Their Mechanism of Action

Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions without being consumed. Their function depends on their active site, where the substrate binds to form an enzyme-substrate complex.

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Substrate Binding: The substrate binds to the enzyme’s active site.
Formation of the Enzyme-Substrate Complex: This temporary complex stabilizes the transition state.
Catalysis: The enzyme facilitates the conversion of the substrate into the product.
Product Release: The product is released, and the enzyme is free to catalyze another reaction.

Enzyme Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics describes the rate of enzymatic reactions, influenced by factors such as substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, temperature, and pH.

Michaelis-Menten Equation: Describes the relationship between substrate concentration and reaction rate.
Vmax (Maximum Velocity): The maximum rate at which an enzyme can catalyze a reaction.
Km (Michaelis Constant): The substrate concentration at which the reaction rate is half of Vmax.

Enzyme Inhibition and Regulation

Enzyme activity is regulated through various mechanisms:

Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitors compete with the substrate for the active site.
Non-Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitors bind to an allosteric site, altering enzyme function.
Feedback Inhibition: The end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier enzyme.

Vitamins: Types, Sources, and Deficiencies

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for metabolism that must be obtained from the diet. They are classified into water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin B Complex:
- Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): Involved in energy metabolism. Deficiency leads to beriberi.
- Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): Supports redox reactions. Deficiency causes cheilitis and glossitis.
- Vitamin B3 (Niacin): Involved in NAD+/NADH synthesis. Deficiency leads to pellagra.
- Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): Essential for amino acid metabolism. Deficiency causes neuropathy.
- Vitamin B9 (Folate): Crucial for DNA synthesis. Deficiency leads to megaloblastic anemia.
- Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin): Essential for red blood cell formation. Deficiency results in pernicious anemia.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid):
- Functions as an antioxidant and is vital for collagen synthesis.
- Deficiency causes scurvy, characterized by bleeding gums and poor wound healing.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin A:
- Essential for vision and immune function.
- Deficiency causes night blindness and xerophthalmia.
Vitamin D:
- Regulates calcium homeostasis.
- Deficiency leads to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.
Vitamin E:
- Functions as an antioxidant.
- Deficiency causes neurological disorders and hemolysis.
Vitamin K:
- Required for blood clotting.
- Deficiency leads to hemorrhagic disorders.

Conclusion

Biochemistry plays a fundamental role in understanding the structure, function, and metabolism of biological molecules. The metabolism of carbohydrates, enzymatic activity, and vitamins are crucial for maintaining life processes. Understanding these biochemical pathways aids in medical research, nutrition, and disease prevention.

Biochemistry: Unit 5 – Introduction to Biological Molecules, Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Enzymes, and Vitamins

Introduction to Biological Molecules

Biochemistry is the branch of science that explores the chemical processes within and related to living organisms. It focuses on understanding the molecular components that sustain life, such as proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. These macromolecules play a fundamental role in cell structure, function, and metabolism.

Proteins and Amino Acids

Structure and Classification

Proteins are large biomolecules composed of amino acid chains linked by peptide bonds. They serve various biological functions, including enzymatic catalysis, structural support, and signal transduction.

Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
Secondary Structure: Includes alpha-helices and beta-sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary Structure: The three-dimensional folding of a protein due to interactions such as hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bridges.
Quaternary Structure: The assembly of multiple polypeptide chains into a functional protein complex.

Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are classified based on their side chains into non-polar, polar, acidic, and basic groups. Essential amino acids must be obtained from the diet, while non-essential amino acids can be synthesized by the body.

Carbohydrates

Structure and Classification

Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are classified into:

Monosaccharides: Simple sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Disaccharides: Composed of two monosaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose, and maltose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharide units (e.g., starch, glycogen, and cellulose).

Significance

Carbohydrates serve as the primary source of energy in living organisms. They participate in cellular respiration, provide structural support, and play a crucial role in cell signaling and communication.

Lipids

Structure and Classification

Lipids are hydrophobic molecules composed of fatty acids and glycerol. They include:

Triglycerides: Composed of glycerol and three fatty acids, serving as an energy storage form.
Phospholipids: Essential for cell membrane structure, consisting of a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails.
Steroids: Include cholesterol and hormones like estrogen and testosterone.

Significance

Lipids provide energy storage, insulation, and protection to cells. They also play key roles in hormone production and membrane fluidity.

Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism is essential for energy production and homeostasis. The major pathways include glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycogenolysis.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. It occurs in the cytoplasm and consists of 10 enzymatic steps:

Glucose phosphorylation by hexokinase.
Isomerization to fructose-6-phosphate.
Phosphorylation to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
Cleavage into two three-carbon molecules.
ATP and NADH production through substrate-level phosphorylation.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, where acetyl-CoA is oxidized to produce NADH, FADH₂, and ATP. Key steps include:

Acetyl-CoA condensation with oxaloacetate to form citrate.
Isomerization and oxidation to generate α-ketoglutarate.
Decarboxylation and further oxidation, yielding ATP and electron carriers.
Regeneration of oxaloacetate for cycle continuation.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, such as lactate, glycerol, and amino acids. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidneys and is crucial for maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting.

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

Glycogenesis: The synthesis of glycogen from glucose, catalyzed by glycogen synthase, occurring primarily in the liver and muscle cells.
Glycogenolysis: The breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate, catalyzed by glycogen phosphorylase, to provide energy during fasting or exercise.

Enzymes and Their Mechanism of Action

Enzyme Structure and Function

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy. They have an active site where substrate binding occurs.

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Substrate Binding: The substrate binds to the enzyme’s active site.
Formation of Enzyme-Substrate Complex: Temporary interaction stabilizes the transition state.
Catalysis: The reaction occurs, transforming the substrate into the product.
Product Release: The product is released, and the enzyme remains unchanged.

Enzyme Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics describes the rate of enzymatic reactions, influenced by:

Substrate Concentration: Follows the Michaelis-Menten equation.
Temperature and pH: Optimal conditions enhance enzyme activity.
Cofactors and Coenzymes: Essential molecules that assist enzyme function.

Enzyme Inhibition & Regulation

Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to the active site, competing with the substrate.
Non-competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to a different site, altering enzyme function.
Allosteric Regulation: Enzymes regulated by molecules binding at allosteric sites.
Feedback Inhibition: End products of metabolic pathways inhibit upstream enzymes.

Vitamins: Types, Sources, and Deficiencies

Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for metabolism and overall health. They are classified into water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin B Complex:
- B1 (Thiamine): Found in whole grains, deficiency causes beriberi.
- B2 (Riboflavin): Found in dairy products, deficiency leads to ariboflavinosis.
- B3 (Niacin): Found in meat, deficiency causes pellagra.
- B6 (Pyridoxine): Found in bananas, deficiency leads to anemia.
- B12 (Cobalamin): Found in animal products, deficiency leads to pernicious anemia.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid): Found in citrus fruits, deficiency causes scurvy.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin A: Found in carrots, essential for vision, deficiency causes night blindness.
Vitamin D: Synthesized in skin, required for calcium absorption, deficiency causes rickets.
Vitamin E: Found in nuts, acts as an antioxidant, deficiency causes neurological problems.
Vitamin K: Found in leafy greens, essential for blood clotting, deficiency causes excessive bleeding.

Conclusion

Biochemistry is the foundation of understanding biological molecules and their role in metabolism. Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids are crucial for cellular functions. Carbohydrate metabolism pathways provide energy, while enzymes and vitamins regulate biochemical processes, ensuring proper physiological functions. Understanding these concepts is essential for advancements in medicine, nutrition, and biotechnology.

Biochemistry: Unit 6

Introduction to Biological Molecules

Biological molecules are essential compounds that support life, playing critical roles in structure, function, and metabolism. The four major types of biological macromolecules are proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. Understanding their structure, classification, and significance is fundamental to the study of biochemistry.

Proteins

Proteins are complex biomolecules composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They serve a variety of functions, including enzymatic catalysis, structural support, immune defense, and transportation of molecules.

Structure of Proteins

Proteins have four levels of structural organization:

Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids.
Secondary Structure: Includes alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets formed by hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary Structure: The three-dimensional conformation of a protein.
Quaternary Structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a functional protein.

Classification of Proteins

Fibrous Proteins: Structural proteins like collagen, keratin, and elastin.
Globular Proteins: Functional proteins such as enzymes, hormones, and hemoglobin.

Significance of Proteins

Serve as enzymes to catalyze biochemical reactions.
Provide structural support (collagen in connective tissues).
Facilitate transportation (hemoglobin transports oxygen in blood).
Act as signaling molecules in hormonal regulation.

Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, consisting of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable R group attached to a central carbon atom.

Classification of Amino Acids

Essential Amino Acids: Cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from diet (e.g., lysine, valine, tryptophan).
Non-Essential Amino Acids: Can be synthesized by the body (e.g., alanine, asparagine, glutamate).
Polar and Non-Polar Amino Acids: Based on side-chain properties.
Acidic and Basic Amino Acids: Based on pH properties.

Significance of Amino Acids

Serve as precursors for protein synthesis.
Play roles in neurotransmitter synthesis.
Contribute to metabolic pathways.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are biomolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are the primary source of energy for living organisms.

Structure of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure:

Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose).
Disaccharides: Two sugar units linked by glycosidic bonds (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

Significance of Carbohydrates

Provide energy through glycolysis and cellular respiration.
Serve as structural components (cellulose in plant cell walls).
Act as signaling molecules in cell communication.

Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic biomolecules essential for energy storage, membrane formation, and signaling.

Structure of Lipids

Lipids include:

Fatty Acids: Saturated (no double bonds) and unsaturated (one or more double bonds).
Triglycerides: Glycerol and three fatty acids, serving as energy storage molecules.
Phospholipids: Major components of cell membranes.
Steroids: Cholesterol and hormone precursors.

Significance of Lipids

Serve as long-term energy storage molecules.
Form cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer).
Act as signaling molecules (steroid hormones).

Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism involves multiple pathways that convert glucose into energy or store it for future use.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, yielding ATP and NADH.

Occurs in the cytoplasm.
Produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose molecule.
Pyruvate can enter aerobic (Krebs cycle) or anaerobic (fermentation) pathways.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria and generates ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle.
Produces 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP per cycle.
Provides electron carriers for oxidative phosphorylation.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like amino acids and lactate.

Occurs in the liver and kidneys.
Helps maintain blood glucose levels during fasting.

Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is the process of converting glucose into glycogen for storage.

Occurs primarily in the liver and muscle cells.
Regulated by insulin.

Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose to provide energy.

Occurs in response to glucagon and adrenaline.
Helps maintain blood sugar levels during fasting.

Enzymes and Vitamins

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Enzymes function as biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

Enzyme Kinetics

Michaelis-Menten Equation: Describes the rate of enzymatic reactions.
Km (Michaelis constant): Indicates enzyme affinity for a substrate.
Vmax: Maximum reaction rate.

Enzyme Inhibition and Regulation

Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor competes with substrate for active site.
Non-Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site.
Feedback Inhibition: End-product inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for metabolic processes. They are classified as:

Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K): Stored in fatty tissues and liver.
Water-Soluble Vitamins (B-complex, C): Need regular replenishment as they are excreted in urine.

Sources and Deficiencies

Vitamin	Source	Deficiency Disease
Vitamin A	Carrots, liver	Night blindness
Vitamin D	Sunlight, fish	Rickets
Vitamin E	Nuts, seeds	Neuromuscular problems
Vitamin K	Leafy greens	Blood clotting disorders
Vitamin C	Citrus fruits	Scurvy
Vitamin B12	Meat, dairy	Anemia

Conclusion

Biochemistry is fundamental to understanding life at a molecular level. Proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids serve critical biological functions, while metabolism ensures energy production. Enzymes regulate biochemical reactions, and vitamins support vital physiological functions. Understanding these concepts provides insight into health, disease, and biological mechanisms.

Biochemist

Biochemistry: Unit 6

Introduction to Biological Molecules

Proteins

Structure of Proteins

Proteins have four levels of structural organization:

Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids.
Secondary Structure: Includes alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets formed by hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary Structure: The three-dimensional conformation of a protein.
Quaternary Structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a functional protein.

Classification of Proteins

Fibrous Proteins: Structural proteins like collagen, keratin, and elastin.
Globular Proteins: Functional proteins such as enzymes, hormones, and hemoglobin.

Significance of Proteins

Serve as enzymes to catalyze biochemical reactions.
Provide structural support (collagen in connective tissues).
Facilitate transportation (hemoglobin transports oxygen in blood).
Act as signaling molecules in hormonal regulation.

Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, consisting of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable R group attached to a central carbon atom.

Classification of Amino Acids

Essential Amino Acids: Cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from diet (e.g., lysine, valine, tryptophan).
Non-Essential Amino Acids: Can be synthesized by the body (e.g., alanine, asparagine, glutamate).
Polar and Non-Polar Amino Acids: Based on side-chain properties.
Acidic and Basic Amino Acids: Based on pH properties.

Significance of Amino Acids

Serve as precursors for protein synthesis.
Play roles in neurotransmitter synthesis.
Contribute to metabolic pathways.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are biomolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are the primary source of energy for living organisms.

Structure of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure:

Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose).
Disaccharides: Two sugar units linked by glycosidic bonds (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

Significance of Carbohydrates

Provide energy through glycolysis and cellular respiration.
Serve as structural components (cellulose in plant cell walls).
Act as signaling molecules in cell communication.

Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic biomolecules essential for energy storage, membrane formation, and signaling.

Structure of Lipids

Lipids include:

Fatty Acids: Saturated (no double bonds) and unsaturated (one or more double bonds).
Triglycerides: Glycerol and three fatty acids, serving as energy storage molecules.
Phospholipids: Major components of cell membranes.
Steroids: Cholesterol and hormone precursors.

Significance of Lipids

Serve as long-term energy storage molecules.
Form cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer).
Act as signaling molecules (steroid hormones).

Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism involves multiple pathways that convert glucose into energy or store it for future use.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, yielding ATP and NADH.

Occurs in the cytoplasm.
Produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose molecule.
Pyruvate can enter aerobic (Krebs cycle) or anaerobic (fermentation) pathways.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria and generates ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle.
Produces 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP per cycle.
Provides electron carriers for oxidative phosphorylation.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like amino acids and lactate.

Occurs in the liver and kidneys.
Helps maintain blood glucose levels during fasting.

Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is the process of converting glucose into glycogen for storage.

Occurs primarily in the liver and muscle cells.
Regulated by insulin.

Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose to provide energy.

Occurs in response to glucagon and adrenaline.
Helps maintain blood sugar levels during fasting.

Enzymes and Vitamins

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Enzymes function as biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

Enzyme Kinetics

Michaelis-Menten Equation: Describes the rate of enzymatic reactions.
Km (Michaelis constant): Indicates enzyme affinity for a substrate.
Vmax: Maximum reaction rate.

Enzyme Inhibition and Regulation

Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor competes with substrate for active site.
Non-Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site.
Feedback Inhibition: End-product inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for metabolic processes. They are classified as:

Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K): Stored in fatty tissues and liver.
Water-Soluble Vitamins (B-complex, C): Need regular replenishment as they are excreted in urine.

Sources and Deficiencies

Vitamin	Source	Deficiency Disease
Vitamin A	Carrots, liver	Night blindness
Vitamin D	Sunlight, fish	Rickets
Vitamin E	Nuts, seeds	Neuromuscular problems
Vitamin K	Leafy greens	Blood clotting disorders
Vitamin C	Citrus fruits	Scurvy
Vitamin B12	Meat, dairy	Anemia

Conclusion

ry: Unit 6

Introduction to Biological Molecules

Proteins

Structure of Proteins

Proteins have four levels of structural organization:

Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids.
Secondary Structure: Includes alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets formed by hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary Structure: The three-dimensional conformation of a protein.
Quaternary Structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a functional protein.

Classification of Proteins

Fibrous Proteins: Structural proteins like collagen, keratin, and elastin.
Globular Proteins: Functional proteins such as enzymes, hormones, and hemoglobin.

Significance of Proteins

Serve as enzymes to catalyze biochemical reactions.
Provide structural support (collagen in connective tissues).
Facilitate transportation (hemoglobin transports oxygen in blood).
Act as signaling molecules in hormonal regulation.

Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, consisting of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable R group attached to a central carbon atom.

Classification of Amino Acids

Essential Amino Acids: Cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from diet (e.g., lysine, valine, tryptophan).
Non-Essential Amino Acids: Can be synthesized by the body (e.g., alanine, asparagine, glutamate).
Polar and Non-Polar Amino Acids: Based on side-chain properties.
Acidic and Basic Amino Acids: Based on pH properties.

Significance of Amino Acids

Serve as precursors for protein synthesis.
Play roles in neurotransmitter synthesis.
Contribute to metabolic pathways.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are biomolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are the primary source of energy for living organisms.

Structure of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure:

Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose).
Disaccharides: Two sugar units linked by glycosidic bonds (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

Significance of Carbohydrates

Provide energy through glycolysis and cellular respiration.
Serve as structural components (cellulose in plant cell walls).
Act as signaling molecules in cell communication.

Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic biomolecules essential for energy storage, membrane formation, and signaling.

Structure of Lipids

Lipids include:

Fatty Acids: Saturated (no double bonds) and unsaturated (one or more double bonds).
Triglycerides: Glycerol and three fatty acids, serving as energy storage molecules.
Phospholipids: Major components of cell membranes.
Steroids: Cholesterol and hormone precursors.

Significance of Lipids

Serve as long-term energy storage molecules.
Form cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer).
Act as signaling molecules (steroid hormones).

Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism involves multiple pathways that convert glucose into energy or store it for future use.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, yielding ATP and NADH.

Occurs in the cytoplasm.
Produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose molecule.
Pyruvate can enter aerobic (Krebs cycle) or anaerobic (fermentation) pathways.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria and generates ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle.
Produces 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP per cycle.
Provides electron carriers for oxidative phosphorylation.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like amino acids and lactate.

Occurs in the liver and kidneys.
Helps maintain blood glucose levels during fasting.

Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is the process of converting glucose into glycogen for storage.

Occurs primarily in the liver and muscle cells.
Regulated by insulin.

Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose to provide energy.

Occurs in response to glucagon and adrenaline.
Helps maintain blood sugar levels during fasting.

Enzymes and Vitamins

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Enzymes function as biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

Enzyme Kinetics

Michaelis-Menten Equation: Describes the rate of enzymatic reactions.
Km (Michaelis constant): Indicates enzyme affinity for a substrate.
Vmax: Maximum reaction rate.

Enzyme Inhibition and Regulation

Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor competes with substrate for active site.
Non-Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site.
Feedback Inhibition: End-product inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for metabolic processes. They are classified as:

Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K): Stored in fatty tissues and liver.
Water-Soluble Vitamins (B-complex, C): Need regular replenishment as they are excreted in urine.

Sources and Deficiencies

Vitamin	Source	Deficiency Disease
Vitamin A	Carrots, liver	Night blindness
Vitamin D	Sunlight, fish	Rickets
Vitamin E	Nuts, seeds	Neuromuscular problems
Vitamin K	Leafy greens	Blood clotting disorders
Vitamin C	Citrus fruits	Scurvy
Vitamin B12	Meat, dairy	Anemia

Conclusion

Biochemistry: Unit 6

Introduction to Biological Molecules

Proteins

Structure of Proteins

Proteins have four levels of structural organization:

Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids.
Secondary Structure: Includes alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets formed by hydrogen bonding.
Tertiary Structure: The three-dimensional conformation of a protein.
Quaternary Structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a functional protein.

Classification of Proteins

Fibrous Proteins: Structural proteins like collagen, keratin, and elastin.
Globular Proteins: Functional proteins such as enzymes, hormones, and hemoglobin.

Significance of Proteins

Serve as enzymes to catalyze biochemical reactions.
Provide structural support (collagen in connective tissues).
Facilitate transportation (hemoglobin transports oxygen in blood).
Act as signaling molecules in hormonal regulation.

Amino Acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, consisting of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable R group attached to a central carbon atom.

Classification of Amino Acids

Essential Amino Acids: Cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from diet (e.g., lysine, valine, tryptophan).
Non-Essential Amino Acids: Can be synthesized by the body (e.g., alanine, asparagine, glutamate).
Polar and Non-Polar Amino Acids: Based on side-chain properties.
Acidic and Basic Amino Acids: Based on pH properties.

Significance of Amino Acids

Serve as precursors for protein synthesis.
Play roles in neurotransmitter synthesis.
Contribute to metabolic pathways.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are biomolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are the primary source of energy for living organisms.

Structure of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure:

Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose).
Disaccharides: Two sugar units linked by glycosidic bonds (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose).
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

Significance of Carbohydrates

Provide energy through glycolysis and cellular respiration.
Serve as structural components (cellulose in plant cell walls).
Act as signaling molecules in cell communication.

Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic biomolecules essential for energy storage, membrane formation, and signaling.

Structure of Lipids

Lipids include:

Fatty Acids: Saturated (no double bonds) and unsaturated (one or more double bonds).
Triglycerides: Glycerol and three fatty acids, serving as energy storage molecules.
Phospholipids: Major components of cell membranes.
Steroids: Cholesterol and hormone precursors.

Significance of Lipids

Serve as long-term energy storage molecules.
Form cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer).
Act as signaling molecules (steroid hormones).

Metabolism of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism involves multiple pathways that convert glucose into energy or store it for future use.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, yielding ATP and NADH.

Occurs in the cytoplasm.
Produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose molecule.
Pyruvate can enter aerobic (Krebs cycle) or anaerobic (fermentation) pathways.

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria and generates ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle.
Produces 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP per cycle.
Provides electron carriers for oxidative phosphorylation.

Gluconeogenesis

Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like amino acids and lactate.

Occurs in the liver and kidneys.
Helps maintain blood glucose levels during fasting.

Glycogenesis

Glycogenesis is the process of converting glucose into glycogen for storage.

Occurs primarily in the liver and muscle cells.
Regulated by insulin.

Glycogenolysis

Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose to provide energy.

Occurs in response to glucagon and adrenaline.
Helps maintain blood sugar levels during fasting.

Enzymes and Vitamins

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Enzymes function as biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

Enzyme Kinetics

Michaelis-Menten Equation: Describes the rate of enzymatic reactions.
Km (Michaelis constant): Indicates enzyme affinity for a substrate.
Vmax: Maximum reaction rate.

Enzyme Inhibition and Regulation

Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor competes with substrate for active site.
Non-Competitive Inhibition: Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site.
Feedback Inhibition: End-product inhibits an earlier step in the pathway.

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for metabolic processes. They are classified as:

Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K): Stored in fatty tissues and liver.
Water-Soluble Vitamins (B-complex, C): Need regular replenishment as they are excreted in urine.

Sources and Deficiencies

Vitamin	Source	Deficiency Disease
Vitamin A	Carrots, liver	Night blindness
Vitamin D	Sunlight, fish	Rickets
Vitamin E	Nuts, seeds	Neuromuscular problems
Vitamin K	Leafy greens	Blood clotting disorders
Vitamin C	Citrus fruits	Scurvy
Vitamin B12	Meat, dairy	Anemia

Conclusion

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