Education and development

Effect of education on economic development

Economics has been defined as the science of man in relation to
‘Getting money’ and ‘spending money’ activities. related to the desire

 

1. Anything that satisfies human desire is good. A commodity can be considered as an economic good only if it is limited and capable of being allocated. Education is thus an economic good. Education is a non-material economic commodity because it is a service.

2. Education is both a consumer’s good and a producer’s good. Education builds a society with productive capacity to meet the material and non-material needs of the population. Education makes primarily for human capital, and also for intellectual and social capital. Human resource development or human capital formation largely depends on education.

3. Education and economic development have a reciprocal relationship marked by mutual contribution. Education enlightens the masses to fight against economic and social exploitation. It also increases the productive efficiency of the individual and the group – indeed of the entire production system. Human capital formation has both quantitative and qualitative dimensions.

4. Many researchers argue that the quality of schooling is more important than the quantity. In the Indian context, educating the vast majority of the population is a difficult challenge before the government. Also, in view of globalization, the quality of education has become even more essential. To bring India on the path of economic, social, political and cultural development, concerted efforts of the government are necessary.

5. Man and the means of satisfying him. The problem is that human wants are unlimited and resources are limited. So he has to choose wisely according to the priorities. The same is true of nations. Democracy should be a welfare state.

6. The resources of the states are limited and hence they have to allocate funds according to their pre-determined policies and priorities, which they have decided democratically. Education is one of the most important areas of development that any welfare state has to focus on in order to make progress and keep pace with other developing and developed nations.

7. Education of citizens affects the economic development of a nation and reciprocally, economic policies and allocation of funds for education affect the educational progress of citizens. Let us look at the relationship between these two in detail.

What is the relation of economics to education?

1. Philosophy, Sociology and Psychology have been considered as the three pillars of education. But later, economics is no less associated with education than these three branches of knowledge. To summarize, the following are common areas of interrelationships of economics and education.

2. Economics lays down some of the major objectives of education.
3. II. Economics explains the importance of education because the economic development of the country is largely based on the development of education.

4. Education is an investment in itself financially.

5. Education reduces poverty as it creates skilled labor and creates right attitude towards work and development. It also creates awareness to lead a better life.

6. Education sets the profile of salary structure, professional values and guarantees economic security of the people.

7. Apart from the social, moral, cultural and spiritual objectives of education, the purely simple ‘bread and butter’ objective of education cannot be ignored. In fact, one of the main objectives of education is to earn a living and that too to lead a good economic life.

Economics of Education:

Education as an economic good: Two conditions have to be fulfilled for a ‘good’ to become an economic good. 1) Availability should be limited. 2) It should be subject to allocation.

There are two types of economic goods. 1) Material goods – material or tangible things. Education plays an important role in content creation

1. Property. It makes man more intelligent, more ready to change, more reliable in his normal work. 2) Intangible Goods – Services that satisfy human needs. Education is an intangible economic commodity. It satisfies a human desire. It is limited in supply and can be allocated.

2. It should be kept in mind that education develops talents and qualities. A high level of economic well-being depends on mental attitude, technical knowledge and skill. An awakened mind, right knowledge, proper skills and desirable behavior accelerate economic growth. It enhances mobility and frees forward flowing energy. Through education the creative urge of man is awakened. Direct results of education are better organizing skills and faster inventiveness. It will help in building an integrated personality and help them lead a harmonious life.

3. Education is both a producer’s good and a consumer’s good. It is a producer’s good because it is used in the process of producing other goods. Those who are educated can educate others there by producing more number of educated people. It is essential maker stuff to become a teacher, lawyer, engineer, mechanic etc. it is a consumer goods if only for one’s satisfaction

It is obtained for the satisfaction of pleasure etc.

 

Education as an investment:

In the olden times, education in itself was considered an unproductive and unproductive expenditure. Therefore, budgetary allocations to education were always cut by developing countries whenever there was a resource crunch. The modern view is that education is a necessary expense. It is a productive investment. The returns are in the form of useful, dynamic and efficient citizens. They contribute more to the welfare of the country. Education is an investment for national development.

HG Wells says, “Investment in education has a unique significance for any nation as the effects of under-investment in this area can never be fully recovered. becomes a race. Education has many consequences for individuals and society. For many, the educational process has some “consumption value” because humans are curious creatures, and they enjoy learning and acquiring new knowledge. Education also has considerable “investment value”. People who receive additional schooling generally earn more over their lifetime, attain higher levels of employment, and enjoy more satisfying careers. Education can
Enables people to enjoy life more, appreciate literature and culture, and become more informed and socially involved citizens.

 

Education is an industry:

The Gross National Income (GNI) is spent on various sectors like agriculture, industry and education for higher returns year after year.

1. Education is a growth industry and provides employment and produces essential services for the total economy as no other industry contributes to the GNP of the country. Thus it contributes substantially to the total economy of the country; And without it the economy would be very bad. It is to be noted that education does not produce material goods that satisfy human needs. All these suggest that education is an industry.

2. It is clear that education is amenable to supply-demand analysis. As students, parents and employees, and the government demand education at different prices and this demand is met by the production of education in the form of educated manpower, well-trained citizens, literate people, etc. The principle of supply and demand applies to education as well. There are associated costs involved in the supply of different types and amounts of education. All this suggests once again that education can be treated in the context of economic analysis. Education builds a society with productive capacity to meet the material and non-material needs of the population.

3. Investment in education is considered as long term investment as its returns start coming only after a certain period of time, like after the education is over and they start earning. late, due to the effect of
4. ‘Globalization’ has led to commercialization of education, especially higher and technical education. In fact, education has become a business. The main interest of various education providers is to make profit. Many terms used in business such as ‘stakeholder’ and ‘entrepreneur’ for education providers, ‘client’ or ‘client’ for students are widely used in the educational system. The fees and associated expenses have gone through the roof making it inaccessible to the marginalized and the common man. The WTO and GATT agreements have played a decisive role in turning education into a service that can be traded in countries around the world. Selling education in many European countries, the United States and Australia accounts for a large part of the GNP coming from third world countries.

5. Education should ideally act as a key factor in reducing the gap between the rich and the poor. Education provides better opportunities for better jobs. Better jobs enable a person to earn better income. Better income leads to higher standard of living as well as better savings. Better savings help in investing more in both capital goods and education. With this, they can provide quality education to their children. The cycle continues. This is the strongest justification for providing reservation to socially and economically backward people in educational institutions by the Constitution of India. Yet, due to the policy of liberalisation, privatization and globalisation, most of the population is out of the purview of education especially higher and technical education, which has put quality education out of reach of most of the middle class and lower class due to higher education . cost of education. Only the upper class who can invest in the education of their children can get quality education thereby perpetuating and widening the gap between rich and poor. Indians are said to be great planners but poor executors. Various schemes and programs have been contemplated to address this problem, but have been largely ineffective in achieving

6. Desired result. The benefits brought by globalization should not be forgotten. But it is a fact that the benefits have not reached the lowest strata, rather it has made the rich richer and the poor poorer. The situation can be saved only with proper and effective intervention by the government. This situation has been substantially improved by greater state funding of education.

Tea can be had.

 

Education is human capital:

Anything that generates a stream of income over time is capital. Thus, capital plays an important role in the process of economic development primarily in its power to produce or accumulate income, either immediately or in the long run. In this context, HG Johnson classified capital as follows.
i) Capital goods that provide specific services for production or consumption by the owner.
ii) Human capital (conveniently known as labour). The distinctive feature of which is that both naturally and according to legal convention, control over the use of capital is vested in the person who embodies the capital, regardless of the source of finance or investment in it.
iii) Social capital or collective capital. Because of its inherent necessity or administrative convenience, its services are not charged to individual users for production or consumption, but are paid for by taxation of the community.
excessively.
iv) Intellectual capital. The inherent characteristic is that once created it is a free good, in the sense that its use by any one person does not reduce its availability to others. Education is essentially a human capital as it directly promotes the quality and potential of human beings. It also contributes to intellectualism and, at least in part, creates social capital. The quality of man matters a lot, because it is the human brain and power that make material capital its value. Economists consider human beings as a form of capital for the following reasons.
1. Creation and development of human capital demands cost.
2. Skilled human resources add to the national product.
3. Expenditure on human resource is concurrent with national wealth.

Factors affecting human capital formation are investment in formal education, better health, job training, manpower resettlement, migration etc. Chief among the factors is formal education as it enhances the economic value of human capital by increasing earning power and current. Man’s property value. Education is important because it makes a man a better producer. Education also serves as a guarantee of economic security as education determines occupational values, salary

Structure etc. It is also an established fact that the economic prosperity of the country is directly proportional to the educational development.
Knowledge capital is:

Intellectual capital, knowledge or professional competence is one of the four capitals. Capital is the key to income generation and consequently to economic growth. Capital is anything that involves a cost but generates income tension over time. Schulze says that an educated person invests a lot of himself in getting education and that investment is also in capital. Educational expenditure is, thus, not a consumption expenditure but an investment expenditure.

 

Education for Economic Growth and Development:

The economic development of a country is largely based on the educational development. Economic growth is synonymous with prosperity and a better life. The rapid economic growth helps the citizens of the country to enjoy a higher standard of living. It also provides better social services. Some economists believe that economic development refers to the proportion of national income that is devoted to material investment. According to this, developed countries continuously increase their capital stock through heavy investment and developing countries accumulate relatively less capital stock due to their low level of national income. Another argument is that it is not the amount of investment that is the clue to development, but rather the technical knowledge that must come from education.

Yet another group of economists believe that per capita income is an indicator of economic development. In this sense, rich oil-producing countries such as Iran, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait that have high rates can claim to have sound economies. Still some other economists are of the view that a well oriented labor force can increase the income of a country. But a labor surplus with limited capital or no equipment and working space can only stand in the way of growth. Keeping the above ideas in mind, John Vaizey redefined economic growth as the total effect of
“the growth of the labor force, the accumulation of physical capital, and an increase in the stock of knowledge and skills available in the community”.

 

 

Relationship between education and economic development:

1. Adam Smith, the philosopher-economist and Marshall, one of the most versatile contributors to the discipline of economics, long ago recognized the link between education and development. adam

2. Smith in his book ‘Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations’ has said, ‘Education also benefits the common worker indirectly. It stimulates his mental activity, it fosters in him the habit of intelligent inquiry; It makes him more intelligent, more prepared, more reliable in his usual work; It increases the time of his life in working hours; It is an important means towards the production of material wealth”. Adam Smith observed that there was a real expenditure in the acquisition of talents by means of education, which constituted and felt a certain capital in the individuals concerned; moreover, Those geniuses made their fortunes as well as part of their society.

3. Recent developments in the field provide insight

Nor is it possible to explain the economic contribution of education in terms of human capital formation through education. Schumpeter emphasized ‘nothing more than the improvement of available resources which is possible through education’ while retaining the influence of organization and innovation in the context of economic development. Karl Marx advocated education on the grounds that ‘it is a counterbalance to the inhuman consequences of the division of labour’. The potential of education for economic development was also clearly emphasized by Theodore Schultz.

4. Economic development through human resource development is very important in underdeveloped and developing countries. Herbison and Myers are of the view that the educational process is human resource development, necessary for the transformation of social and political institutions towards which people in modernizing countries strive.

5. However, it should be noted that in a given social set-up, the provision of education and economic development are interlinked in such a way that one cannot exist without the other. A decline in education will therefore affect economic growth and slow economic growth will affect the educational system and standards.

6. Economists and educationists have joined hands to attack one of the most complex problems in all social problems, that of planning the entire education system of the country as an integrated part of the economy.

7. Economists want educationists to produce engineers, doctors, teachers and other technical staff at minimum cost. Economists deal with quantitative considerations while academics deal with quality. John Vaizey states, “It must take ten people in a secondary school and a hundred people in an elementary school to produce one graduate in a given system”. What is of interest in the partnership between the economist and the educationist is that both are concerned not so much with the provision of funds for educational programs as with some reduction in cost without affecting the increase in output. Economists want teachers to come up with an innovation that can increase the productivity of schools with little or no increase in cost. It is necessary to increase the quantity and quality in education

8. Quality labour, efficient administrators, well trained teachers, educational innovation and research. But it needs more support with finance. The allocation for education is very high under the argument that there is paucity of funds and the available funds are diverted to other developmental activities. In the words of Dean Rusk, “Education is not a luxury that can be afforded after development. It is an integral part of the development process itself”.

9. Education has the power to improve quality and make human resource more productive. The USSR of 1920 is a valid example for the above statement. “It was estimated that the work of those with a primary education was about one and a half times as productive as that of uneducated workers of the same age doing the same work, and that the work of those with a secondary education was twice as productive in, whereas graduates were four times as productive”. Japan of the twentieth century is another example. It could have made very rapid economic progress, even though it had serious problems such as lack of natural resources, high density of population, and late entry into the region. The Reason; This may be due, at least in part, to its increase in public spending on education after World War II.

10. Literacy in developing countries is very low as compared to developed countries. Illiteracy is thus concomitant with underdevelopment. India could achieve only 6 percent increase in literacy during the period 1961-71. Since illiteracy is a common feature of underdeveloped countries and is common among lower income groups, it acts as a deterrent.
11. R in economic development. It has been found that illiterate people are neither motivated to make full use of the facilities created for economic development in agriculture, family welfare programs and adoption of new technology in rural areas or efficient use of credit to increase production Nor are they eligible.

12. A positive attitude towards practical work and physical work means a lot in economic development. There is always the danger of a situation in which education entitles one to be white-handed, to avoid practical work, and to enjoy the fruits of intellectual pursuits. Education plays a major role in effecting changes in the behavior and habits of the people.

13. Economic development is really meaningful when people participate in the production process on a large scale. The real challenge of development is to provide full employment. The small scale sector is emblematic of the fact that our economy is characterized by production by the masses rather than by the means of production.
14. Reward of Education:

15. An important distinction can be made between the private and social returns of education. Private returns refer to the benefits received by an individual who receives additional schooling. These include economic benefits such as higher lifetime earnings, lower levels of unemployment, and greater job satisfaction. They may also include outcomes such as better health and longevity. Social return refers to the positive (or possibly negative) consequences that accrue to individuals other than the individual or family.

who decide how much schooling to receive. So they are benefits (possibly also costs) that are not taken into account by the decision maker. If such “external benefits” are substantial, they may result in significantly less investment in education in the absence of government intervention.

16. Many observers have suggested that schooling has substantial social benefits, and have advocated for government involvement in the funding and provision of education on this basis. Indeed, when discussing education policy, many classical economists deviated from their usual

17. Status of laissez faire policy on the proper role of the government. For example, in The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith states: “The State derives no notable advantage from the education of the common people. If they are instructed … are less liable to the delusions of enthusiasm and superstition, Milton Friedman’s position on the role of government in schooling, which is among ignorant nations, is a more contemporary example of this point: “A stable and democratic society is impossible without the widespread acceptance of some common values and without a minimum degree of literacy.” and knowledge on the part of most citizens. Education contributes to both. As a result, a child’s education benefits not only the child or his or her parents but also other members of society. My Child’s Education Contributes to the welfare of other people by promoting a stable and democratic society.” (Friedman, 1955).

Effects of Education:

Governments generally have a strong direct involvement in the funding and provision of school education at various levels. Therefore, public policies in these areas have a major impact on the country’s accumulation of human capital. For a given level of initial per capita GDP, a higher initial stock of human capital reflects a higher ratio of human to physical capital. This high ratio generates high economic growth through at least two channels. First, greater human capital facilitates absorption of better technologies from leading countries. This channel is likely to be particularly important for schooling at the secondary and higher levels.
Second, human capital is more difficult to adjust than physical capital. Therefore, a country that begins with a high ratio of human to physical capital—such as after a war that primarily destroyed physical capital—grows faster by adjusting the amount of physical capital upward. The high level of schooling in the development panel is that many countries follow discriminatory practices that prevent the efficient exploitation of well-educated women in the formal labor market. Given these practices, it is not surprising that more resources devoted to higher levels of female education would not appear as enhanced growth. Female primary education indirectly promotes development by encouraging low fertility.

 

Effect of education on improving productivity:

 

Various theories are widely used to explain labor market outcomes. These models offer different approaches to study the effect of education on employment prospects and productivity. Below are three such models.

(i) Human Capital Model:

Human capital theory is widely used to explain labor market outcomes. The essence of the theory is that investments in human resources are made to improve productivity, and hence employment prospects and incomes. Individuals acquire skills through formal schooling and/or work experience, and these skills increase the individual’s value to employers and therefore their future earnings. Several key elements of human capital theory are worth noting. First, it is a theory of investment decisions: individuals incur costs in the present in exchange for benefits in the future. This investment dimension is particularly important because the benefits of human capital acquisition are typically accrued over the long term, in the form of a higher income stream over many years. Second, because future returns will usually be accompanied by uncertainty about the extent to which the investment will pay off. Human capital investment is generally a risky investment.

Third, a major component of the cost of acquiring human capital is usually the opportunity cost – income forgone.
e not working. Decisions about education—both the time devoted to schooling and the choice of educational programs—will be influenced by both the “investment” and “consumption” components of human capital formation. The latter refers to the fact that learning can be a very enjoyable activity for some, but a less enjoyable or even unpleasant activity for others. Other factors being equal, individuals who enjoy learning are more likely to stay in school longer. Similarly, other things being equal, students are more likely to choose educational programs that they find interesting and motivating. An important distinction is that between private and social returns to human capital formation. Personal returns are those which are based on the expenses incurred and benefits received by the person receiving the education. These benefits include both the consumption and investment consequences of schooling. Social returns are based on the costs incurred and benefits received by society as a whole. There can be a distinction between private costs and social costs, as well as between private and social benefits. This distinction is important because individuals can be expected to base their schooling on the lifetime earnings profile of more educated workers above the equivalent income profile of less educated workers.

(ii) Signalling/Screening Model:

Human capital theory emphasizes the role of education as enhancing the productive capabilities of individuals. An opposite view of learning, where it has no effect on individual productivity, is the signaling/screening model. According to this theory, education can act as an indicator of the productive potential of individuals. Central to this theory is the importance of imperfect information. In their hiring decisions, employers are incompletely informed about potential employees’ abilities. So they can use education as an indication of the new hire’s future productivity. If the employers’ beliefs are later confirmed

In anecdotal experience (that is, if more educated workers become more productive), employers will continue to use education as a signal. Thus employers will offer higher wages to more educated workers. Faced with a positive relationship between education (which is expensive to obtain) and wages, individuals are motivated to invest in education.

You will get enthusiasm.

A central assumption of the signaling model is that education is less costly for individuals who are innately more skilled or capable. If this assumption holds, high ability individuals will invest more in education than low ability individuals. Both high and low ability individuals face similar potential benefits from investing in schooling, but lower ability workers face higher costs and will therefore receive less education. Under these circumstances, employers’ beliefs about the relationship between education and worker productivity would be confirmed. Even though schooling does not (as assumed) have any effect on worker productivity, employers have an incentive to pay higher wages to more highly educated workers and individuals with higher potential have an incentive to invest in education.

In this model, education acts as a “sorting device”, separating high from low ability workers. Like human capital theory, the signaling/screening model can explain the positive relationship that exists between schooling and labor market outcomes such as earnings. However, there are important differences between the two theories. In the human capital model, education is both private and socially productive. In contrast, in the indicative model, education is privately productive (investing in education benefits individuals of high potential) but not socially productive because education has no effect on the total goods and services produced by society. . Another important difference is that in the human capital model, schooling has a causal effect on workers’ productivity and thus earnings.

In the signaling theory, education has no effect on worker productivity, so education has no effect on earnings. Rather, the positive relationship between schooling and earnings arises because both variables are related to a third factor – worker competence. In many circumstances, the worker’s ability is not observed, so it is difficult to determine whether the positive relationship between education and earnings arises because schooling increases workers’ productive capacity (the human capital explanation) or because schooling increases workers’ productive capacity (the human capital explanation). Education sorts out individuals of high and low potential.

(iii) Job-matching or information-based model

In the human capital model, individuals choose among alternative educational programs according to the cost of these programs and the associated lifetime income streams (and other benefits) that they generate. The information can play a role in helping to identify or predict the benefits of alternative educational options. An Alternative View of the Educational Process
The gist is that it helps individuals determine what type of career they are best suited for. In this case, education plays the role of providing individuals with information about their comparative advantages—what types of occupations and jobs they are likely to do well in. This system is characterized by job-matching and information-

based model. The perspective is similar to human capital theory in many ways, including its implication that education has both personal and social benefits. However, the emphasis is different. Human capital theory emphasizes the acquisition of skills that are valued by the labor market, whereas job matching models emphasize the acquisition of information about one’s abilities and aptitudes. Human capital theory focuses on the direct enhancement of skills provided by schooling, while information-based models highlight the role of education in identifying the most productive applications of a given skill. The job matching approach also has important implications for the interpretation of the return of work experience. It views Jobs as a niche, or firm-worker.

 

Evidence on the outcomes of education and skill development:

1. Many people invest in education in the belief that doing so will bring future benefits such as greater employment opportunities, higher earnings, and more interesting and diverse careers. Similarly, many public policies encourage individual citizens to increase their educational attainment and enhance their skills and knowledge. Increases in educational achievement and skills are not necessarily valuable to them, but are often believed to result in better labor market and social outcomes.

2. Schooling can have many consequences for individuals and society. For many people, the educational process has some consumption value. Humans are curious creatures and enjoy learning and acquiring new knowledge. Even focusing on investment aspects, education can enable people to fully enjoy life, appreciate literature and culture, and become more informed and socially involved citizens. While these and other potential consequences of schooling are important and should not be overlooked, the consequences of education for employment, productivity, and earnings are also significant.

3. As many studies have documented, schooling is one of the best predictors of “who gets ahead”.

Better educated workers earn higher wages; They have greater growth in income over their lifetimes, experience less unemployment, and work longer hours. Higher education is also associated with longer life expectancy, better health, and less involvement in crime. As many studies have documented, schooling is one of the best predictors of “who gets ahead”. Better educated workers earn higher wages; They have greater growth in income over their lifetimes, experience less unemployment, and work longer hours.

4. Higher education is also associated with longer life expectancy, better health and less involvement in crime. Estimation of life-cycle income profiles from data on groups of individuals with different levels of education. Combining these projected income profiles with information on the costs of pursuing additional education — both

5. Direct cost and opportunity cost associated with income forgone from not working – allows estimation of the implicit rate of return on investment in additional education. For example, the rate of return on a university degree compared to a high school diploma is estimated using life-cycle income profiles for these two groups, as well as the likelihood of entering the labor force after completion. With information on the direct and opportunity costs of attending university in comparison. High School.

6. The second approach is based on the estimation of an earnings function in which a measure of earnings is regressed on years of schooling (or highest level of educational attainment), years of labor market experience, and additional variables controlling for other effects on earnings. goes. This earning function approach is widely used because it readily provides an estimate of the rate of return on education, as well as insight into the relative magnitude of other effects on earnings.

7. The strong positive relationship between education and earnings is one of the most well-established relationships in the social sciences. However, many social scientists have been reluctant to interpret this correlation in the sense that education exerts a causal effect on earnings. According to human capital theory, schooling increases earnings because it enhances workers’ skills, thus making employees more productive and more valuable to employers. However, as discussed earlier, a positive relationship between earnings and schooling may arise because both education and earnings are related to unobservable factors such as ability, persistence, and ambition (hereinafter si
8. Known as MPLE
9. ―Qualification‖). If there are systematic differences between the less educated and the well educated that influence both schooling decisions and labor market success, then the relationship between education and earnings may reflect these other factors as well. According to signaling/screening theory, such differences may arise if employers use education as a signal of unobtainable productivity-related factors such as ability or persistence. Under these circumstances, standard estimates of return to schooling are likely to be biased upwards because they do not take into account unattainable “potential”.

10. In general, people with greater ability or motivation may be more likely to succeed, even in the absence of additional education. That is, the correlation that exists between income and education may reflect the contribution of unobserved effects rather than a causal effect of education on earnings, after controlling for other observed effects on earnings. This “omitted ability bias” issue is of fundamental importance not only to the question of how we should interpret the positive relationship between earnings and schooling, but also to the emphasis placed on education in public policies. The marginal return—the effect of additional schooling for someone with a low level of education—can be much less than the average return. Under these circumstances, education may not be very effective in improving the employment or earning prospects of relatively disadvantaged groups.

 

11. At the time of independence in 1947, India inherited an education system that was not only quantitatively small, but also characterized by regional and structural imbalances. Only 14 percent of the population was literate and only one in three children was enrolled in primary school. Low levels of enrollment and literacy were associated with sharp regional and gender disparities. Recognizing that education is vitally linked to the totality of the developmental process, reform and restructuring of the education system was accepted as an important area of state intervention. Accordingly, the need for a literate population and universal education for all children in the age group 6-14 was provided for with a precisely defined and delineated framework in the Indian Constitution as well as in the successive Five Year Plans.

12. The sustained efforts made by the government and other agencies have made an impact in various aspects of the Indian education system for the betterment, though inconsistencies still exist. Efforts to reform the education system in India are still going on and changes are being seen in various areas of education. The development that took place in various aspects of education during this period had its impact on social, political, social

on the physical, technical and other fields. Mutually, these aspects have worked towards the development of education. This chapter is specifically devoted to the analysis of the effects of development on educational outcomes of ‘mass schooling’ and ‘higher education’.

 

Aspects of mass schooling:

 

The constitutional commitment to ensure free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14, under the scheme of universal primary education, has been a key feature of national policy since independence. This vision has been emphatically described in the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986, and the Program of Action (PoA) 1992. In pursuance of the thrust embodied in NPE and POA, several schemes and programs were launched. These include Operation Blackboard (OB); Non-Formal Education (NFE); Teacher Education (TE); Women’s Statistics (MS); State specific basic education projects like Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project (APPEP), Bihar Education Project (BEP), Lok Jumbish Project (LJP) in Rajasthan, Education for All Project in Uttar Pradesh; Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP) in Rajasthan; National Program of Nutritional Support to Elementary Education; and District Primary Education Program (DPEP).

 

Why education for all? ,

There are strong reasons for vigorously implementing universal primary education in India. Social justice and equality is in itself a strong argument for providing basic education to all. It is an established fact that basic education improves the level of human welfare – especially with respect to life expectancy, infant mortality rate and nutritional status of children etc. Studies have shown that universal basic education contributes significantly to economic growth. The following are other compelling reasons.

1. Constitutional, legal and national statements for UEE have from time to time upheld the objective of universal primary education.
2. The Constitutional Mandate 1950 states, “The State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, to all children free and compulsory education until they complete the age of 14 years.”
3. National Policy on Education 1986 – “It shall be ensured that free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality is provided to all children up to the age of 14 before entering the twenty-first century”.
4. Unnikrishnan Judgment, 1993 – “Every child/citizen of this country has the right to free education till he completes the age of fourteen years.”

5. Education Ministers’ Resolution, 1998 – “Universal elementary education should be pursued in mission mode. It emphasized the need to pursue a holistic and convergent approach towards UEE.”
6. Report of the National Committee on UEE in Mission Mode: 1999 – UEE should be taken forward in mission mode with a holistic and convergent approach with emphasis on preparation of District Elementary Education Plans for UEE. It supported the fundamental right to education.
7. Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 states that “Education should be directed at the full development of the human personality and at strengthening respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.” It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.

Scenario so far: In a global sense, the right to education and the right to learn is unfortunately still a vision rather than a reality, although the demand for ‘educated people’ is increasing. today about 1000 million wi
The silent majority of women are termed as illiterate. More than 130 million children, nearly two-thirds of them girls, in developing countries do not have access to primary education. Against this alarming backdrop, the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child reaffirmed the right of every child to education.

The Indian scenario is slightly different. The effect of development can be seen in the field of education. As a result of several efforts, India has made a lot of progress in terms of increase in number of institutions, teachers and students in elementary education. The number of schools in the country increased fourfold – from 231,000 in 1950 – to 51 to 930,000 in 1989–99, while enrollment in primary increased almost sixfold from 19.2 million to 110 million.

At the upper primary level, enrollment increased 13 times during this period, while girls’ enrollment registered a whopping 32 times. The Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) at the primary level has crossed 100 per cent. Admission in schools is not a big problem now. At the primary level, 94 per cent of the country’s rural population has access to schooling within a kilometer radius and 84 per cent at the upper primary level.

The country has made impressive achievements in the field of primary education. But the flip side is that out of 200 million children in the age group of 6-14, 59 million are still not attending school. Of these, 35 million are girls and 24 million are boys. There are problems related to drop-out rates, low levels of learning achievement and low participation of girls, tribals and other disadvantaged groups. There are still at least one lakh such habitations in the country where there is no schooling facility within a kilometer radius. Coupled with this are various systemic issues like

Inadequate school infrastructure, poorly functioning schools, high teacher absenteeism, large number of teacher vacancies, poor quality of education and insufficient funding.

In short, the country is yet to achieve the elusive goal of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE), which means 100 per cent enrollment and retention of children with access to school education in all habitations. To fulfill this deficiency, the government has started Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

Program for Universal Elementary Education in India:

1. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is a historic step towards achieving the long cherished goal of Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) through a time bound integrated approach in partnership with the State. The SSA, which promises to change the face of the country’s elementary education sector, aims to provide useful and quality elementary education to all children in the age group of 6-14 by 2010.

2. SSA is an effort to recognize the need for improving the performance of the school system and to provide community owned quality elementary education in mission mode. It also envisages bridging the gender and social gap.

3. Structure for Implementation: The Central and State Governments will jointly implement the SSA in partnership with the local governments and
4. Community. To indicate the national priority for elementary education, a National Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Mission is being set up with the Prime Minister as its Chairman and the Union Minister for Human Resource Development as its Vice-Chairman. States have been requested to set up State Level Implementation Society for DEE under the chairmanship of Chief Minister/Education Minister. This has already been done in many states.

5. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan will not disturb the existing structures in the States and Districts but will try to bring convergence in all these efforts. Efforts will be made to ensure that there is functional decentralization up to the school level to improve community participation.

6. Coverage and Duration: The SSA will cover the entire expanse of the country before March 2002 and the duration of the program in each district will depend on the District Elementary Education Plan (DEEP) prepared by it according to its specific needs. However, an upper limit for the duration of the program has been fixed at ten years/ie till 2010.

 

 

Central Strategies for the SSA Program:

1. Institutional Reforms- As part of SSA, institutional reforms were carried out in the states. States were to make an objective assessment of their prevailing education system including educational governance, achievement levels in schools, financial issues, decentralization and community ownership, review of State Education Acts, teacher deployment and teacher recruitment, monitoring and evaluation, education. Policy with respect to girls, SC/ST and disadvantaged groups, private schools and ECCE. Many states have already implemented institutional reforms to improve the delivery system of primary education.
2. Sustainable funding – Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is based on
3. On the grounds that funding of early education interventions must be sustainable. This calls for a long-term perspective on the financial partnership between the central and state governments.
4. Community Ownership – The program seeks community ownership of school based interventions through effective decentralization. It was augmented by the participation of women’s groups, VEC members and members of Panchayati Raj Institutions. Thus due to development in education community participation is an additional dimension in the existing education system.
5. Institutional Capacity Building – SSA envisages a major capacity building role for national and state level institutions like NIEPA/NCERT/NCTE/SCERT/S1EMAT. Quality improvement requires a continuous support system of resource persons. Vigorous efforts have been made in this direction which is again the result of developments in education.
6. Reforming Mainstream Educational Administration – It calls for reforming mainstream educational administration by institutional development, incorporation of new approaches and adoption of cost-effective and efficient methods.
7. Community based monitoring with complete transparency- The program will have a community based monitoring system. The Educational Management Information System (EMIS) will correlate school-level data with community-based information from micro-planning and surveys. Apart from this, every school will have a notice board showing all the grants received by the school and other details, thereby making the educational system more transparent.
8. Habitation as a unit of planning – SSA works on a community based approach to planning with habitations as a unit of planning. The Habitation Plans shall be the basis for the preparation of District Plans thus ensuring full and complete coverage of the area.

9. Accountability to the community- SSA envisages accountability and transparency along with collaboration between teachers, parents and Panchayati Raj Institutions. It made educational programs need-based and community relevant.
10. Girls’ Education – Girls’ education, especially those belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, was one of the major concerns in the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. It enabled the otherwise neglected sections of the people into the fold of education.
11. Attention to special groups – Attention will be paid to the educational participation of children belonging to SC/ST, religious and linguistic minorities, disadvantaged groups and children with disabilities so that no one is left out of the purview of education.
12. Pre-project Phase – The SSA began with a well-planned pre-project phase across the country that has built capacity and capacity to improve delivery and monitoring systems.

Provided a large number of interventions for development. It was a well planned and executed program of its kind.
13. Emphasis on Quality – SSA lays special emphasis on making education useful and relevant to children at the primary level by improving curriculum, child-centred activities and effective teaching methods.
14. Role of Teachers – SSA recognizes the important role of teachers and advocates attention to their development needs. Establishment of BRC/CRC, Recruitment of qualified teachers, Teacher development opportunities through participation in curriculum related material development, Focus on classroom process and Exposure visits for teachers designed to develop human resources among teachers .
15. District Elementary Education Plans – As per the SSA framework, each district shall prepare a District Elementary Education Plan reflecting the overall and convergence being undertaken in the Elementary Education sector.
16. The components of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan include appointment of teachers, teacher training, qualitative improvement in elementary education, provision of teaching learning materials, establishment of block and cluster resource centers for educational support, construction of classrooms and school buildings, education guarantee centres. Establishment, Education of Integrated Disabilities and Distance Education.

District Primary Education Project (DPEP):

1. Earlier the trend was towards area-based investments like Operation Blackboard or Non-Formal Education (NFE) programme. The planning of these and other programs was centralized and planned. The Education for All (EFA) initiative is now becoming more region and people specific.

 

2. The districts selected under DPEP represent those districts where female literacy is below the national average of 39.2 per cent and where the ‘Total Literacy Campaign’ (TLC) has successfully generated demand for elementary education.

3. However, DPEP has a much broader focus and agenda than the Bihar Project and the Uttar Pradesh Education Project. The main thrust of DPEP is (i) district level planning (ii) community participation and decentralized management (iii) focus on education of girls, SCs, STs and differently abled (
4. v) To improve the quality of education through the process of demand creation for better service (vi) To reduce the overall dropout rate in primary education to less than 10 percent for all students.

5. It is difficult to escape the failure of Indian primary education. Sixty years after India’s political independence, India ranked 126 out of 175 countries in the 2006 ‘Human Development Report’. India’s adult literacy rate is a dismal 61%, below Cameroon (68%), Angola, Congo. Uganda (67%), Rwanda (65%), and Malawi (64%). The fact that 40% of Indian adults today “cannot read or write even a short, simple statement relating to their daily life” implies that they did not receive even the most basic level of primary education. Compare this to China’s 90% adult literacy. [Source: UNDP Human Development Report}

6. India has made huge strides in increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to nearly two-thirds of the population. India’s superior education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to India’s economic rise. Much of the progress in the field of education has been attributed to various private institutions. The private education market in India is estimated to be $40 billion in 2008 and will grow to $68 billion by 2012. However, India still faces challenges. Despite increasing investment in education, 35% of the population is illiterate and only 15% of students make it to high school. The programs drawn up were very ambitious and relevant to India’s needs. But it has been proved once again that Indians are great planners but poor executors.

Non-Formal Education (NFE):

1. The directions of 1960 for universalization of elementary education could not be realized even till 1994. The NPE clearly mentions, “A large and systematic program of non-formal education will be initiated for school drop-outs, children from homes without schools, working children and girls who cannot attend school for the whole day”. . Since dropouts and underprivileged children cannot be educated in formal schools, they must be

2. Provided education in NFE centres. The attitude can be aptly summed up in the quote, “If Muhammad does not come to the mountain, the mountain must go to Muhammad.” If the children do not come to the schools, then the schools should go to the children.”

3. Children who cannot continue their school education due to various reasons and children who cannot go to school need non-formal education to realize the constitutional mandate. Adults who cannot study in primary schools partly because they are engaged in various occupations for their living and partly because they need functional and part-time education, which can only be provided through NFE centers Is.

4. The concept of non-formal education has changed in the last few decades. Many consider non-formal education as a complement to the formal education system and for some others it is an alternative to formal education. Although both are correct

nd NFE actually aims at universalization of elementary education in a specific period or by a specific time frame.

5. Prof. Malcolm Adiseshaiah has observed that non-formal education is broad as it understands all learning outside the formal system, and has no parameter of time or place. It can be classified as pre-school, unschooled or dropout for all learners in the age group 15-60. Mainly commercial.

6. If we remove the rigidity of the formal system of education with regard to hours and place of study, type of students, methods of teaching and learning, content of curriculum, qualification requirements of students and teachers and methods of evaluation and still Let’s organize a systematic learning process with clear learning goals, we will have a non-formal educational system with varying degrees of flexibility and therefore varying degrees of non-formalism.

7. NFE is considered as an instrument of development which is not only economic, but political as well as cultural. Since it helps in improving the productivity, it is also called as a part of skill development programme. In developing countries where elementary education is not universal, NFE acts as a lever to promote literacy.

8. NFE is linked to general development- health, sanitation, family planning, environment, industry, agriculture etc. Those coming to the non-formal education system will learn skills and understanding in addition to literacy and numeracy. NFE is closely linked to improving the quality of life of people and social
9. As well as national development. Since it promotes literacy and literacy has a positive relationship with development, NFE has a great impact on development and equally on GNP which is an outcome and indicator of the country’s productivity and the competencies of the people as citizens and producers of wealth. Is.

 

10. The Program of Action (1986) pointed out that the essential features of NFE are organizational flexibility, relevance of curriculum, variety of learning activities related to the needs of learners and decentralization of management. Various models of NFE have been developed and various agencies implementing the program have been encouraged to develop and adopt the most suitable model to suit the needs and conditions of the target groups.

 

Need and Importance of NFE in India:

1. It is universally accepted that an educated and enlightened citizenry is a pre-requisite for the success of a democracy. Although education up to secondary education has been made compulsory in developed countries, elementary education is considered essential for the effective functioning of democracy in developing countries. In 1947, about 85% of its population was illiterate and barely 31% of children aged 6–11 attended school. It was a national concern at that time and the same problem remains, albeit in a lesser form.

2. With a view to realizing this objective of universalisation of elementary education, it is felt that we have to universalise the provision of school education facilities, (a) enrollment and (b) retention in schools. But unfortunately, universalisation of primary education still remains a distant goal due to social, economic, educational and political reasons.

3. It is a fact that formal education has proved inadequate to meet the needs of the growing number of children many of whom suffer from various social, economic and cultural disabilities. It will be difficult to achieve the goal of universal primary education only through formal education system. Therefore to universalize elementary education in our country, to meet the paucity of resources, to serve the scattered and sparsely populated areas, to meet the inadequacy of formal education, to enable the pupils to learn To make non-formal education should be provided. To cater to the needs of the late bloomers, and to provide education to the socially and economically disadvantaged sections of the society.

4. Since independence, India has made great strides in terms of growth, enrollment and sophistication of all types of institutions and diversification of educational programmes. It contains the aspirations of the nation in terms of universal coverage, equitable distribution and quality of education.

5. Non-formal education is mainly for national development, of course, any form of education contributes to national development in one way or the other. But NFE programs are conceived, planned and implemented for the majority of our people, who have been downtrodden, downtrodden and downtrodden for many decades and are now willing to come into the limelight.

6. Section. For them, education is not for status upgradation or academic satisfaction, but for improving their employability or productivity. Thus education promotes social and personal development. National development means the development of the country, social, economic, cultural, political etc. The concept of development has been changing and cannot be equated with economic growth alone. This would include social, cultural and political development. Similarly, we cannot equate development with industrialization (or modernization for that matter).

7. For example, we value justice and equality so much.

But with the increase in GDP, inequality and injustice are also very high. Therefore, social justice has been taken as an integral part of the development process. Similarly, we used to emphasize on consumerism and development of goods and services, but now we emphasize on the development of man himself.

8. The main objective of NFE is the development of a large section of the rural population. Rural areas are plagued by superstitions, ill-health, poor housing and restricted routes to economic development. It also aims at removing wide disparities between rural and urban, rich and poor, male and female classes.

9. National development is generally equal to Gross National Product (GNP). But it does not mean only economic development. Economic growth cannot be explained by capital and labor either. There is a large residual factor that can only be explained in terms of education. Advances in education, science, research and technology lead to an increase in GNP, which in turn provides a large amount of money for education and helps it grow.

10. As envisioned by Gandhiji, the Indian people achieved independence but lacked formal education.
11. Growing dependence, injustice and inequality in various sectors of the society. By propagating, inter alia, basic education and its principles of “learning by doing”, Gandhi emerged as the best exponent of non-formal education to achieve productivity, equality and justice for the poor, oppressed and underprivileged. wants to It integrates both education and development as its programs are generally built around developmental work. Since the programs of NFE are relevant and feasible and free from various rigors and formalities, non-formal education is well received by the learners, who are motivated but have bitter taste of irrelevant and meaningless learning experiences.

12. They are now interested in educating themselves and thus being empowered to improve their productivity, citizenship and quality of life, so that they can meet the challenges of the emerging society in the 21st century. This newborn awareness and enthusiasm has positive consequences for development in education.
13. Education of women and girls:

14. The literacy rate of women is very low as compared to men. Very few girls are enrolled in schools and many of them drop out. According to a 1998 report by the US Department of Commerce, the main barriers to female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), lack of female teachers, and gender bias in the curriculum (most female characters are depicted as weak and vulnerable). is) are Compelled).

15. Since 1947, the Government of India has attempted to provide incentives for school attendance of girls through programs of mid-day meals, free books and uniforms. This welfare emphasis drove primary enrollment between 1951 and 1981.

16. The National Policy on Education in 1986 decided to restructure education in line with the social structure of each state and with larger national goals. It emphasized that education is essential to democracy and central to improving the status of women. The new policy aimed at social change through revised curriculum, syllabi, increased funding for schools, expansion in the number of schools, and policy reforms. Emphasis was laid on the expansion of vocational centers and primary education for girls; secondary and higher education; and rural and urban institutions. The report tries to link problems like low school attendance to poverty and dependence on girls for household chores and looking after siblings. National Literacy Mission

Worked through women teachers in 17. villages. Although the minimum age of marriage for girls is now eighteen, many are still married much earlier. Therefore, the dropout rate of females is high at the secondary level.

18. The number of literate women in India’s female population ranged between 2-6% from the British Raj to the formation of the Republic of India in 1947. The concerted efforts led to an improvement from 15.3% in 1961 to 28.5% in 1981. Female literacy was over 50% of the total female population in 2001, although these figures were still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India. Recently Government of India has started Saakshar Bharat Mission for female literacy. The mission aims to reduce female illiteracy to half of its present level.