Social Anthropology

 

Social Anthropology

 

by

 

Dr. Afroz Eqbal

Contents

 

 

 

 

 

• Introduction to Anthropology

• Social Anthropology: Nature and Scope

• Social Anthropology: A branch of Anthropology

• What is social anthropology

• cultural anthropology

• How did social anthropology develop?

• Methods of Social Anthropology

• Nature and Scope of Social Anthropology

• Scope of Social Anthropology

• Future perspective

• Social Anthropology in India

• Current Scenario

• Religion, Magic and Science

• Culture and Society

• Family

• Marriage

• Kinship

• Tribes in India

• Tribal Problems

 

 

 

Introduction to Social Anthropology

 

1) Can be stated as ‘Culture is anything acquired by the members of the society’. The material and non-material things that man has acquired as a member of society are the subject matter of cultural anthropology. Human works include everything created by humans—traditions, folklore, social institutions, and other social networks.

 

2) Thus, it can be said that American anthropologists not only study things with cultural orientation but socially oriented things under the field of cultural anthropology. It can be said that cultural anthropology is a broad term encompassing all social aspects of man, but lays emphasis on cultural aspects. For cultural anthropologists, social system is a part of society and culture cannot emerge without social system. David Bidney states in this context that social and cultural anthropology is then understood as some of the branches of a general discipline of anthropology, which covers the study of man and his culture in society.

3) How did social anthropology develop

4) Since the beginning of human life, people have been thinking about themselves and their surroundings. Therefore it is futile to talk about the beginning of the study of man. The origin of systematic thinking is usually attributed to Greek civilization, particularly the writings of Herodotus in the fifth century BCE. Some people also call him the ‘Father of Anthropology’. He didn’t just record what he saw, and what people told him about the various countries around the shores of the Mediterranean. He asked some basic questions which are currently the subject of social anthropology such as ‘What made people so different?’

5) To trace the evolution of social anthropology, we will talk about the scholars whose pioneering works shaped the present discipline ‘social anthropology’. But to begin with, we will go through the works of various travelers who actually collected the original data which ultimately laid the foundation of ethnographic study.

 

6) Many early social anthropologists followed these travelogues to frame their social anthropological studies.

7) Each era of geographical exploration has seen an explosion of interest in the new type of society discovered by the explorers. Travelers and colonists regarded these newly established societies as “another culture”. The first and foremost thing they recognized about these new societies or cultures was that they were completely different from their own societies and cultures. Explorers and colonists, being used to their own ways, set the standard of what people should be like, they were always driven to do the same

8) Why were the other people so different from myself. The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries were such periods. The French essayist Montaigne (1553–92) was greatly interested in the apparently contradictory barriers between the customs of his own country and those of other countries. there were also theoretical arguments

 

9) At that time can the brown skinned people who wear no clothes really be descendants of Adam.

10) Eighteenth-century Europeans were less sure than sixteenth-century Europeans that all the advantages were in their favor. North America and Polynesia became points of interest.

 

11) Rousseau described the Indians as the ‘great barbarians’ of the golden age of natural man and interestingly the same people were described by the Spanish missionaries as people without souls. In the seventeenth century Hobbes already thought that the American Indians had come too close to his imagined state of nature, where every man’s hand was against his neighbors and man’s life was ‘lonely, poor, bad, cruel and short’. ‘ Was.

12) During this period alone, the reports of the manners and customs of distant lands collected by these travelers and missionaries turned out to be not only interesting information about other cultures but also a data for building historical plans of development of societies. Started to be considered. Some authors date the history of comparative ethnography to the Jesuit missionary Lifitau, who published a book in 1724 comparing American Indian customs with those of the ancient world as described by Latin and Greek authors.

 

13) A little later Charles de Braose wrote on the parallels between the religion of ancient Egypt and that of West Africa. In 1748 Montesquieu published his Esprit des lois, based on reading and not travel, and thus became for some the first theorist of social anthropology. He recognized that differences in legal systems had to be explained by other characteristics of nations, people

he numbers can be explained by linking them to differences in temperament, religious beliefs, economic organization and customs in general, as well as their environment. Keeping this in mind we can give him the right to be the first functionalist.

14) Adam Ferguson and Adam Smith of Scotland made their generalisations, as did Montesquieu, based on the extensive study of the institutions of various societies available at the time.

 

15) This perspective of evolution became popular with the discovery of Darwin’s theory of natural selection in the evolution of biological species. It greatly influenced the study of society and culture. Even before this there was the concept of evolution. People like Henri de Saint Simards, Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer talked about evolution philosophically. But he did not provide any empirical evidence of how evolution had taken place. But in the late nineteenth century we find a body of scholars both in the United States and Britain who are concerned with the stages of development.

16) According to some historians, the origin of social anthropology dates back to David Hume and Immanuel Kant, who were the first philosophers to define social anthropology. As already mentioned, Herodotus is regarded as the father of anthropology, who raised some of the basic questions of social anthropology. But, it is believed that the systematic history of social anthropology begins precisely with Henry Maine and Lewis Henry Morgan. These two thinkers are considered to be the founding fathers of social anthropology.

 

17) He also performed the duties of travelers and missionaries.

18) Social anthropologists of the 19th century were greatly influenced by the work of Darwin and his associates. He established that the origin of man has passed through several stages from ape to Homo sapiens. Anthropologists tried to follow the logic of Darwinism and apply it to establish the origin of social institutions. This trend continued through the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century.

 

 

 

cultural anthropology

 

1) The division into socio-cultural anthropology is not easily accepted all over the world. We have already mentioned how social anthropology has different terms of reference in different countries. Similarly the term socio-cultural anthropology also has different areas of practice in different countries. Cultural anthropology is a term of reference popular in the US.

 

2) In America, cultural anthropology is emphasized with the aim that man is more than just a biological man, but also a cultural being. The culture of a particular society helps us to understand civilization regardless of time and place. American cultural anthropology also includes archaeology. The stress on culture studies characterized the American school of thought, which resulted in the creation of ethnography – the science of people.

 

3) Anthropology as knowledge about the ‘cultivated human’, that is, knowledge about those aspects of humanity that are not natural, but which belong to that which has been acquired. According to Herskovits, cultural anthropology is the study of the ways humans have adapted to deal with their natural habitat and social environment and how customs are learned, maintained and passed on from one generation to the next. is handed over. The word ‘culture’ is a complex word in itself.

 

4) Culture has been defined in different ways by different anthropologists. The most accepted and concise definition of culture can be given

 

 

 

Anthropology: Definition, Meaning, Nature and Scope.

Anthropology is the study of various elements of human beings, including biology and culture, in order to understand human origins and the development of various beliefs and social customs.

The word anthropology is a combination of two words ‘anthropos’ and ‘logus’, the former meaning human and the latter meaning discourse or science. Thus anthropology is the science or discussion of man. It is the science or discourse of man. Aristotle first used the word ‘anthropologist’.

 

 

 

definitions of anthropology

 

• Herskovits: “Anthropology can be defined as the measurement of human beings.”

 

• Jacobs and Stern: “Anthropology is the scientific study of physical, social and
• Cultural development and behavior of human beings since their appearance on this earth.

 

 

• Concise Oxford Dictionaries: The study of mankind, especially its societies and customs; The study of the structure and development of man as an animal”.

 

Kroeber: “Anthropology is the science of groups of men and their behavior and

• Production”.

 

 

 

Divisions of Anthropology and their Relationships

 

Anthropology is divided into two main branches: physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. These two main branches are further sub-divided into several other branches which are given in the following chart:

 

what is social anthropology

 

1) It not only studies man in the present context but also the journey of man through the path of evolution from the Pleistocene period to today’s globalized world and also tries to trace the way forward. Anthropology studies man irrespective of any geographical boundary.

 

 

2) The most common and basic definition of Anthropology states that

Anthropology is the study of man across time and space. Anthropology deals with every aspect of man.

 

 

3) It studies man as a whole and also tries to study the differences within him. Man is the most wonderful creature in the world with cultural, social and habitat variations. Unlike any other species, Homo sapiens itself represents a diverse population with respect to culture. Cultural variation gives variety to the same species Homo sapiens.

 

4) Homo sapiens, as biologically defined, is an inbreeding population; But culturally man makes different rules for marriage. Interbreeding populations within the same species do not occur. Cultural taboo defines the mating pattern. Similarly, all members of the biologically same species i.e. Homo sapiens have the same potential. But man separates himself on the basis of caste. We can mention many such examples which convince us to define Anthropology as a unique science which studies man including all the differences and similarities. Anthropologists explore differences as well as try to find common features within the same species, Homo sapiens.

 

5) Anthropology claims to systematically research man and all manifestations of human activity in an integrated manner.

 

6) Man lives in a society according to a certain cultural pattern. The norms of culture differ in different societies. Generally social anthropology is concerned with the study of this aspect of man. But, as a discipline, social anthropology has different meanings in different countries. Reflecting the diversity and variation in human thought, we find various ideas surrounding social anthropology.

7) The term social anthropology is generally used in Great Britain and other Commonwealth countries. With the support of Professor Claude Lévi-Strauss, the term is also widely used in France, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries. Social anthropology refers to different meanings in countries such as the United States, England, and other countries in the European continent.

 

8) Therefore, we often see a diverse nature of what is referred to by the term social anthropology in different countries. Anthropology in Great Britain refers to physical anthropology which studies the biological aspect of man. Social anthropology in England is understood as ethnography or sociology, as in other continental European countries. In short, social anthropology has two different meanings in Europe itself. On the other hand in the United States, social anthropology is considered to be a large and comprehensive discipline. It covers the study of human beings from various aspects. It not only considers man as a sociological animal but also stresses on the cultural aspect.

9) In the nineteenth century, the term ‘ethnography’ was used in place of social or cultural anthropology. The Greek word ethos means race and logia means study. Thus, anthropology was referred to

10) Study of diverse behavior of ethnic groups. Cultural differences covered a major portion of such studies. Along with this, it also studied culture change. Sometimes, social anthropology is defined in terms of ethnography.

 

11) Ethnographers who focus on social relationships such as family and kinship, age groups, political organization, law and economic activities (called social structure) are called social anthropologists. Supporting the position of ar.

 

12) Radcliffe-Brown English anthropologist denied the utility of historical study in anthropology and focused on social structure. In this context, social anthropology is in his view non-historical while anthropology is historical. Specifically, social anthropology represents a post-British school of thought that can be defined as the study of social structure and social organization.

 

 

 

 

 

Scope Of Social Anthropology

 

1) According to Evans-Pritchard (1966), social anthropology includes the study of all human cultures and societies. Basically, it tries to find out the structure of human society. Social anthropology considers every human society as an organized whole. Complete pattern of customs, beliefs, working, living, marrying, worshipping, political organization

– All these differ from society to society. Since the structure and the ideas behind it differ, so do the societies.

 

2) Social anthropology first tries to find these differences and then also tries to establish the similarities. As we can see different cultures and societies, we also see similarities in these different cultures and societies. Therefore, anthropologists study these differences as well as the similarities. Basically, the study revolves around social structure. We can take the example of the study of religion. People follow different religions in different parts of the world. Each religion has different rituals to perform and people follow these rituals in their religion.

Workers do according to roles. The common thing between these different religions is that

 

3) Belief in the supernatural. Therefore, both difference and similarity become the study subjects of social anthropology.

4) Evans-Pritchard, while comparing social anthropology with sociology, says that in social anthropology primitive society is its subject matter. In other words, it deals with the study of primitive, indigenous people, hill and forest people, scheduled tribes and such other groups of people.

 

5) Fieldwork is another integral part of social anthropology. In social anthropology the data are collected from the field. Thus, social anthropology can be defined in relation to two broad areas of study – (1) primitive societies (2) fieldwork.

 

6) John Beatty (1964) advocated that social anthropologists should study other cultures. This makes anthropology a comparative discipline of study of social institutions. Thomas Hyland Erikson (1995) advocates the study of small spaces in social anthropology.

 

7) Erikson says that social anthropology does not remain confined to primitive people; It studies any social system and the merit of such social system is that it is a small scale, non-industrial type of society. According to Erikson, social anthropological studies:

1) small scale society

2) Non-industrial society

3) Small and big issues of the society.

8) As social anthropology began to explore its case of study – primitive societies, various theoretical frameworks emerged. Morgan postulated evolutionary theory and propounded the study of evolution in H.

9) Uman Samaj. According to him human society has passed through three basic stages – savagery, barbarism and civilization. With such an evolutionary perspective, social anthropologists began to examine human society in the light of evolution.

 

10) The theoretical framework of structural-functionalism became a popular approach in Britain. British anthropologists who used the term social anthropology emphasized the concept of society, which is a group of individuals who live in face-to-face association and share common sentiments. Various social interrelationships and interactions are the subject of his study. Functionalism propounded the functional study of social institutions. On the other hand, American anthropologists who prefer the term cultural anthropology have focused on the concept of culture as the sum total of human behaviour, verbal or non-verbal, and their products—material or non-material.

 

11) Cultural anthropologists try to analyze each intervention and interrelationship by looking at the value behind it.

12) The term civilization was known to anthropologists since the postulate of evolutionary theory, but it was the pioneering work of Robert Redfield, which brought a movement in the history of the development of social anthropology by introducing the study of civilization.

 

13) He studied folk villages and urban centers and tried to understand the patterns and processes of contradiction between them. Thus, he developed the concept of folk society, urban society and the folk-urban continuum. Since then the study of village as a unit of rural civilization and city as the center of urban civilization came into existence. Thus, anthropology is not merely the study of primitive people. The subject matter of social anthropology covers a vast area.

 

14) It studies the tribal society as well as the urban society. It also studies change. No culture and society is immune to change regardless of the circumstances. Isolated/primitive societies also change with time. Sometimes even under the pressure of circumstances, the society

15) does not change.

 

16) It completely follows the traditional path, constantly trying to keep the tradition alive. Social anthropology studies why or why society/culture does not change. But change is inevitable, whether it is a remote and isolated village or an industrial city, people everywhere experience various changes in their way of living, which manifests itself with the passage of time.

17) Man’s life has many dimensions and efforts to study each in detail have resulted in the origin and development of many sub-branches from the initial branch of social anthropology such as economic anthropology, political anthropology, psychological anthropology , The Anthropology of Religion and on and on and on. With the new demands of the society, many new sub-disciplines like communication and visual anthropology are also emerging. Social anthropology has to accommodate all the new changes in human society in order to maintain the relevance of its study. Thus, new territories will expand its territory.

18) Anthropology is playing very important role in each and every field of human society. During the colonial period, it was used as an administrative tool. Social anthropology came out of that colonial influence and has now carved out a new disciplinary path.

 

19) As an academic discipline, it has a firm theoretical foundation and unique practical dimensions. It is indeed capable of accommodating disciplinary changes with new theoretical frameworks in the near future as well. Anthropology not only covers the contemporary pattern of human life but also human society and life.

Carefully records changes in It also includes historical and prehistoric account of human life. Hence, it becomes very relevant to each and every stage of human civilization.

20) Claude Lévi-Strauss envisioned the future of social anthropology as a study in the context of communication between individuals and groups. The study of the communication of words and symbols that convey meaning between individuals in society would constitute the study of linguistics, knowledge, art, etc.

 

21) The study of communication between husband and wife (male in matriarchal society and female in patriarchal society) will constitute the study of communication between different groups. The study of the use of marriage, kin groups and kinship. and the communication of goods and services between individuals and groups would constitute the scope of study of economic organization and material culture. Thus, the study of human society can be done not in terms of culture but in terms of the structures that symbolize culture. Many such innovative ideas are coming in the field of social anthropology and its scope is expanding both in terms of theory and practice.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social Anthropology: Nature and Scope

 

 

1) The definitions of social anthropology given by the social Darwinists are a milestone in the development of this discipline. The foundations of current anthropology go back to books including Henry Maine’s Ancient Law (1861) and Lewis Henry Morgan’s Ancient Society (1877). They were both profound of evolutionary theory in anthropology. This theory is considered to be the theoretical beginning in social anthropology. Main worked in India. He proposed a distinction between status and contract societies.

 

2) Maine argued that in status-based or traditional societies, kinship is usually important in determining one’s position in society; In a contract-based society, it would rather be the individual’s personal achievements that provide them with their positions.

 

3) Morgan’s contribution to early anthropology, on the other hand, created the theoretical background. This resulted in the creation of evolutionary theory. It supports the notion of social evolution, which states that human societies have passed

4) f the stages of savagery, barbarism and civilization. Each stage is also featured by a certain economy. The Savagery had a subsistence economy. During this stage man earned his livelihood through hunting and food gathering. Agriculture and animal husbandry were the sources of life at the level of barbarism. Whereas those societies that reached the level of civilization developed literacy, technology, industry and the state.

 

5) This theory propounded by Morgan got the support of many other scholars. Westermarck propounded the theory of human marriage while Briffault propounded the theory of family. Tylor’s studies also led to an evolutionary theory of religion. Evolutionists such as W.H.R. Rivers, Sir James Fraser,

6) AC Hayden and Charles Seligman contributed in different fields. All these early social anthropologists defined social anthropology as the science of social development.

7) When evolutionary theory emerged in anthropology, many schools came up with anti-evolutionist views. He criticized evolutionists for their reliance on travel accounts, which he claimed were unscientific. This school of thought is often referred to as the structural-functional school of thought represented by the work of British anthropologist Radcliffe-Brown. Before this there was another school which was the school of diffusionists. He was also critical of the evolutionary school, which did not agree with the concept of evolutionary progress of society and culture.

 

8) According to him, culture not only developed but also declined. Again, he followed that man was not originally inventive, and important inventions were made only once in a particular place from where it was spread, transferred, borrowed and introduced to other parts of the world. Went. There were three schools of diffusion – the British School, the German School and the American School of Diffusion. Smith, WJ. Perry, Rivers, Franz Bose, Clerk Wissler, Kroeber etc. were the scholars of this school.

9) Franz Boas and Bronislaw Malinowski are considered to be the first modern anthropologists who argued the need to do fieldwork. Boas, a severe critic of classical evolutionists, argued the need for field work. He insisted on collecting empirical data and conducted fieldwork in the USA in the 1880s to study American Indians.

 

10) He founded modern American cultural anthropology. They began to study the influence of culture on personality and vice versa and eventually formed a school. The pioneers of this school are Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, Linton, Cardiner and Cora Du Bois. Boas made important contributions in the field of anthropology. The most important contribution appears to be the theory of ‘cultural relativism’.

 

11) It is a concept which argues that each group should be studied according to its own culture. In other words, culture is specific to a group. Even today, Boas’ contribution to cultural relativism is considered a part of social and cultural anthropology.

Considered an indispensable anthropological tool. Bose defined anthropology as the social science of the study of culture. It is one of the aspects of modern anthropology.

 

12) Malinowski, the founder of the functionalist school of thought is best known for his work on the Trobrianders who lived in the island of New Guinea. He did fieldwork among these tribals between 1915 and 1918. According to Malinowski, social anthropology is concerned with the interrelationships of different parts of tribal society. In other words, tribal economy, politics, kinship etc. are all interlinked. According to him, social anthropology is interested in studying the functional relationships among the members of the tribal society. Malinowski contributed greatly to the fieldwork tradition in anthropology. His ethnographic account based on his fieldwork ‘Argonauts of the Western Pacific’ is a landmark publication in anthropology. The concept of participant observation was developed by him. He emphasized the importance of studying the interrelationships of various aspects of society and therefore he was of the view that intensive field study is absolutely necessary.

13) Radcliffe-Brown, a contemporary of Malinowski, developed the concept of social structure to explain forms. This is another important development in social anthropology. According to him, social structure is concerned with the study of the position and role of an individual within an institution.

 

14) In other words, it is concerned with a network of social relationships within an institutional framework. Radcliffe-Brown criticized classical evolutionists, saying that the study of change is also necessary. But, unlike classical evolutionary studies, these must be based on reliable documentation. He said that classical evolution was based on inferred history. It is nothing more than an approximate speculation of people’s lives. He called it pseudo-historical. Therefore, he argued that classical evolution has no place in scientific inquiry.

15) Anthropologists study pre-literate societies. So whatever knowledge they have of their tradition; It is available at oral lev

16) L. Oral history may be mixed with myth and other stories. Therefore, it cannot be completely trusted as an authentic source. Early twentieth-century scholars who were critical of evolutionary theory thought that instead of studying how societies evolved, all one should study was how societies lived and functioned. This is a change of paradigm. The approach that emerged from this is known as structural-functional approach.

 

17) The founder of this theoretical trend argued that instead of understanding the historical study of society, social anthropologists should engage in contemporary study – the study of present-day society. Radcliffe-Brown has called anthropology the study of the here and now. He also insisted on doing first hand fieldwork. Thus, social anthropologists began to study the current social structure, focusing on the interrelationships of social institutions and their functions.

18) But this trend also faced some criticisms like – (1) It is not responsible for social change. It is related to order. (2) Whatever it has accepted as change, change is favourable. But every society goes through a process of change. Sometimes change comes by following a revolutionary path. Therefore, structural functional study was unable to cover this area and it opened the door to criticism. Therefore, by the 1940s anthropologists revived the need to study evolution. The approach of neo-evolutionism was introduced in the field of archaeology.

 

19) V. Gordon Childe, Leslie White and Julian Steward represent this school of thought. He defined social development from a new perspective. Various new approaches to the study of development have drawn attention to the question of how to relate the particular to the general. The issue was exacerbated by the writings of Marvin Harris, who emphasized the difference between Radcliffe-Brown’s earlier nomothetic and ideological approaches to the study of culture.

 

20) In between, Robert Redfield introduced the study of civilization to social anthropology. Redfield developed the concepts of folk-urban continuum and great and small traditions which were very useful concepts for studying a civilization and its different dimensions such as tribal, folk, semi-urban and urban. Thus, the studies of village, town and city were

 

21) Other scholars who have contributed in this field are – Morris E. Opler, Milton Singer, Mekim Marriott, Mandel Baum etc.

22) Anthropology like any other discipline is experiencing many new trends. In the theoretical dimensions, many new theories like symbolism, new ethnology etc. have come forward with new promises. The field has continued to expand with many other new theories and ideas.

 

23) Along with this practical aspect, social anthropology is also expanding. Developmental studies occupy a major field in social anthropology. New field methods and techniques are also coming up which are enriching the research pattern. Ideas like postmodernism are creating a new platform for the investigation of social anthropologists. many anthropological subfields

Emphasizing distinct and specific cultural aspects and all using the prefix ‘ethno’ to indicate their alliance with the culture, such as ethno-science, ethnomusicology, ethno-psychology, ethno-folklore and further. Thus, social anthropology is continuously developing as a branch of anthropology.

 

 

 

Classification of anthropological sciences

Anthropology

Physical Anthropology                                                                     Cultural Anthropology

 

Human   Human     Ethnology Anthropometry Biometry                 Prehistoric                                                   Social Genetics Paleontology           Archeology                                  Anthropology

 

 

 

 

LINTON’S CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Physical Anthropology                                                                                                  Cultural Anthropology

Human Paleontology                Somatology                                                    Archeology Ethnology Linguistics

 

 

PIDDINGTION’S CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOLOGY

 

 

Physical Anthropology                                                                                                  Cultural Anthropology

Human Genetics                    Anthropometry                                                Prehistoric                                                Social

Or Somatology                                         Anthropology                                         Anthropology

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nature And Scope Of Social Anthropology

 

1) Generally speaking, social anthropology aims at the study of human society as a whole. It is essentially a holistic study and covers all parts related to human society. Culture naturally comes under this, as it is an integral part of human society. Therefore, the basic objective of social anthropology is to study human as a social animal. Thus, in order to fulfill its purpose, it explores a wide area, covering almost every aspect of human social life.

2) Modern social anthropology aims not only to study human society but also to understand the complex issues of modern human life. As primitive people have been the focus of anthropological studies, the problems faced by these people in the process of development in modern days become very important for the study of anthropologists.

 

3) Anthropologists not only study these problems but also try to find their solutions. Developmental anthropology and functional anthropology are specialized fields within social anthropology that deal with such problems. Therefore, we can say that the scope and objectives of social anthropology go together; affects each other. As the scope increases, a new target emerges.

 

 

 

 

To trace the origin of the term social anthropology, we also need to trace the theoretical framework to some extent. Along with this, the term cultural anthropology will also come in our discussion, because these two terms have a close interpretation. Sometimes these two terms overlap in the field of practice.

Though we have subjective debate on the term social anthropology and cultural anthropology, sometimes we find the use of these two terms interchangeably. People use the term socio-cultural anthropology to interchange these two words. But historically the ideology of these two terms has been debated and as a student of anthropology we need to know these issues.

There are basically two major schools of thought in anthropology. One is British ideology and the other is American ideology. British school of thought divided anthropology into three basic branches

 

1) Biological or physical anthropology.

2) Social Anthropology.

3) Archaeology.

 

 

The American School defines four branches of anthropology:

 

1) Physical Anthropology

2) Cultural Anthropology.

3) Archeology

4) Linguistic Anthropology.

 

 

Thus, we see that there are many issues related to terminology. It is surrounded by many historical debates. We will try to unfold these debates in our next sections.

 

 

 

1. Physical Anthropology: Physical anthropology studies the human body, genetics and the position of man among living beings. Some of its definitions are as follows:
2. JE Manchip White: “Physical Anthropology is the study of the physical appearance of man.”
3. Hobel, “Physical Anthropology is therefore the study of the physical characteristics of human

Race like this”.

3. M.H. Herskovits, “Physical anthropology is, in essence, human biology.”
4. Piddington, “Physical Anthropology is concerned with the physical characteristics of man.”

Now physical anthropology is divided into the following five branches according to the specialization of study.

1. Human Genetics: Human genetics is that branch of physical anthropology that studies the origin of man. Human genetics is the study of human heredity. It studies human physical characteristics that are transmitted from generation to generation through heredity.
2. Human Paleontology: Human paleontology studies old human skeletons of different stages. It also studies the history of the Earth’s development. According to Webster’s New International Dictionary, “Human paleontology is the science that deals with life of past geological periods. It is based on the study of the fossilized remains of organisms.”
3. Ethnography: Ethnography studies human races. Ethnography classifies human races and studies their physical characteristics. Ethnography is based on anthropometry and biometrics, as they both measure racial characteristics.

4. Anthropometry: According to Herskovits, anthropometry can be defined as the measurement of human beings. Anthropologists have determined certain characteristics by the measurement of which human races can be classified. Anthropometry is again classified into two branches, the study of physical structures of living humans and the study of human fossils.
5. Biometry: In the words of Charles Winick, biometry is the statistical analysis of biological studies particularly applied to areas such as disease, birth, growth and death. Thus biometry is the statistical study of biological characteristics.
6. Cultural Anthropology

Cultural anthropology studies human cultures. Man invents, develops and establishes some kind of system to run his personal and social life. This whole system is culture. It is a social heritage. However, it is not transmitted through heredity. It is learned through imitation, experience and understanding. cultural anthropology human customs, rituals, traditions, common

Geology studies life, religion, art, science, literature, and economic and political organization. According to

E.A. Hobel. “The phase of anthropology which focuses its attention on the customs and manners of mankind is

called cultural anthropology”.

Cultural anthropology is classified into the following two categories:

1. Prehistoric Archaeology: Literally speaking, archeology is the study of ancient times. Thus it studies ancient things. Archeology studies ancient history that has no written records. The things and articles discovered by archaeological excavations give us an idea about the culture of the people who used them. It also records the cultural achievements of a particular era and the area of its expansion.
2. Social Anthropology: Social anthropology, as the name suggests, studies social organization and social institutions. According to Firth, “One of the broadest ways of defining social anthropology is to say that it studies human social processes comparatively.”

Physical anthropology and cultural anthropology are closely related. The various branches of physical anthropology have a profound influence on the study of social anthropology, a branch of cultural anthropology. Again archeology has been helpful in the study of various branches of physical anthropology.

social Anthropology

Social anthropology is an important branch of anthropology. Social anthropology is social. This meaning of the word ‘social’ is sufficient to show how the scope and approach of social anthropology differ from other branches of anthropology. Some definitions of social anthropology are as follows:

1. Piddington: “Social anthropologists study the cultures of contemporary primitive communities.” This definition of social anthropology is a bit narrow because anthropology does

 

 

Not only studies primitive cultures but also studies contemporary cultures. From this point of view, S.C. The definition of social anthropology given by Dubey is more appropriate.

2. SC Dubey: “Social anthropology is that part of cultural anthropology which focuses its primary attention on the study of social structure and religion rather than on the material aspects of culture.” It is clear that social anthropology studies various aspects of social structure such as social institutions, social relations and social phenomena etc.
3. Penniman: “That part of cultural anthropology which deals with social phenomena is called social anthropology”.
4. M.N. Srinivasa: “It is a comparative study of human societies. Ideally, I

T includes all societies, primitive, civilized and historical. Dr. Srinivas has given a fairly detailed definition of social anthropology.

5. Charles Winick: “Social anthropology is the study of social behavior, especially

Approach to the systematic comparative study of social forms and institutions.

In short, social anthropology is the comparative study of social behavior and social phenomena of men of all countries and ages.

Scope of Social Anthropology

In defining social anthropology, Beals and Hoizer write that “it is concerned with culture, whether that of the primitive men of the Stone Age or the European city-dwellers of today.” Although this is more properly a definition of cultural anthropology, yet it shows definitely and clearly that the scope of social anthropology is very wide. It includes the study of various parts of culture, social institutions, and economic and political administration. The main branches of social anthropology are given below:

1. Ethnography
2. Family Anthropology
3. Economic Anthropology
4. Political Anthropology
5. Symbolism and Linguistics
6. Ideas and Art
7. Ethnography: Ethnography is the main area of social anthropology. As its name suggests, it studies the human race. Its scope also includes the study of cultures of different castes.
8. Family Anthropology: The family is the basic institution of the society. Social anthropology, therefore, also studies the family. This branch of social anthropology is known as family anthropology. It makes a comparative study of families of different cultures and societies. It studies the various forms as well as the progression of the family. The family is based on marriage. family

 

 

Hence anthropology includes the study of various forms of marriage. This includes marriage as well as other blood relations.

3. Economic Anthropology: Economic laws act as an important art in social organization. Along with the change in economic administration, there are some radical changes in the social structure. Social anthropology, therefore, closely studies the economic administration of primitive and civilized human societies and the different levels of development in them.
4. Political Anthropology – Political anthropology has an important place in economic administration as well as in social structure. So social anthropology studies all kinds of political administration, laws, governments and rules of punishment etc. This branch of social anthropology is known as political anthropology.
5. Symbolism and Linguistics: The study of various symbols of human behaviour, which are the present n languages of different societies, provide many important facts for the study of society.

Let’s know So social anthropology studies all these also. The entire linguistic field comes under this branch of social anthropology. The major branches of linguistics are given below:

1. i) Descriptive Linguistics: It studies individual and regional languages;
2. ii) Historical Linguistics: It is the historical study of languages;

iii) Comparative Linguistics: It studies comparative facts about language;

1. iv) General Linguistics: It studies the difference between minimal and maximal roots of some languages.
2. Ideas and Art: The study of ideas is very important in theoretical studies. The idea includes religion, magic, science, and even legends. Social anthropology is the comparative study of all these things in ancient human societies. Art is an important part of culture and culture reflects the inner part of the society. Social anthropology studies sculpture, metallurgy, and even dance and instrumental and vocal music.

Social Anthropology and Cultural Anthropology

Dr. D.N. Mazumdar and other contemporary anthropologists have considered social anthropology as a part of cultural anthropology. Cultural anthropology studies the way of life of contemporary primitive man. There are four branches of cultural anthropology, e.g. linguistics and symbology, thought and art, economic anthropology and social anthropology. Social anthropology studies different types of social life and its development. Thus, according to Dr. Majumdar, linguistics, iconography, economic anthropology and thought and art are outside the purview of social anthropology.

 

According to this view, family anthropology and political anthropology are only part of social anthropology. This is clear from the aforesaid discussion about the scope of social anthropology. But family anthropology and political anthropology are closely related to other branches. Morgan, an American anthropologist, was the founder of social anthropology. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology differ more in their subject matter than in their method and concepts. While cultural anthropology studies cultures,

 

 

Social anthropology is the study of social structure, social organization and social relations. Morgan studied anthropology through the study of society. Durkheim showed

Social relations differ from psychological relations and in either case social anthropology studies anthropology in the context of society. According to contemporary American anthropologists, social anthropology is only a branch of cultural anthropology because culture is a broader concept than society and is far broader than what is involved in the study of social life.

Nature of Social Anthropology

Social Anthropology is a science and to know this fact it is necessary to understand what science is. Some people start considering a particular subject matter as chemistry or engineering etc. Common people differentiate between science and art in this sense. But it would be better to let the scientists explain what science is. Some definitions of science are given below:

1. Besanz, J. and Besanz, M. (2010). It is the attitude rather than the content that is the test of science.
2. Green is a method of science investigation.
3. White. Science is scientific.
4. Weinberg and Shabat. Science is a special way of looking at the world.
5. Carl Pearson. The unity of science lies in its method, not in its nature.

Apart from these scientists, Karl, Churchman, Acoff, Gillin and Gillin and many social anthropologists have also considered science as a method. It is because of method that it is different from art. It is because of method that all sciences, even if they have different fields, are called sciences.

 

 

Social Anthropology in India

 

1) André Beteille (1996) used the term ‘Indian anthropology’ to mean the study of society and culture in India by anthropologists, regardless of their nationality. Indian society and culture is being studied by various anthropologists inside and outside the country.

2) In the context of world anthropology, Indian anthropology appears to be very young.

 

3) However, the origin of anthropology dates back to the late nineteenth century with the ethnographic compilation of the traditions and beliefs of various tribes and castes in different provinces of India. Anthropological data was collected only during the British colonial rule.

 

4) Government officials and missionaries collected some anthropological data for the first time in the eighteenth century without any academic interest. But, the motive behind this was not to study Indian societies and cultures, but to help the British administration for smooth governance. The missionaries had a religious motive. However, both the administrator and the missionary were

 

5) He was amazed when he came across such a wide variety of people with completely different cultures. He tried to communicate his strange experience through writing, by describing the people and their facts. In the late nineteenth century, administrators and missionaries in India wrote extensively about the Indian people and their lives. Trained British officers such as Risley, Dalton, Thurston, O’Malley, Russell, Crookes, Mills etc. and many others who were posted in India wrote compendiums on the tribes and castes of India.

6) During this period some British anthropologists like Rivers, Seligman, Radcliffe-Brown, Hutton came to India and did anthropological fieldwork. Anthropologists in India progressed successfully throughout the century that followed. Indian anthropologists borrowed ideas, frameworks and procedures of work from western anthropologists and practiced these while studying their own culture and society rather than those of other cultures.

7) Sc Roy, D.N. Mazumdar, G.S. Ghurye, SC. Dubey, N.K. Bose, L.P. Student and S. Sinha tried to trace the origin and development of social anthropology in India. SC Roy’s paper Anthropological Research in India (1921) refers to works on tribes and castes published prior to 1921. Anthropological accounts included the writings of British administrators and missionaries, as anthropological work in India before 1921 was mainly done by these people. After this DN Majumdar tried to trace the development of anthropology in India. This effort was made after twenty five years of work by SC Roy.

 

8) DN Majumdar tried to link the developing discipline of anthropology in India with the theory of culture that originated in Britain and America. American influence was first recognized in addition to the work of British administrators and missionaries.

9) GS Ghurye in his article The Teaching of Sociology, Social Psychology and Social Anthropology (1956) wrote, ‘Social anthropology in India has not kept pace with developments in England, Europe or America. Although social anthropologists in India are, to some extent, familiar with the work of important British anthropologists or some continental scholars, their knowledge of American social anthropology is by no means inadequate. SC Dubey (1952) discussed this issue in the light of research oriented issues.

 

10) He said that Indian anthropology needs more attention from social workers, administrators or political leaders, so that research oriented issues are properly dealt with. NK Bose discussed the progress of anthropology in India in 1963 – prehistoric anthropology, physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. Recent trends like village studies, caste studies, study of leadership and power structure, kinship and social organization of tribal village and applied anthropology came to the Indian scene in the 1970s and

 

11) LP Vidyarthi discussed these issues to trace the development of anthropology in India. He felt the need for an integrated approach from various disciplines for a proper understanding of man and society. His main emphasis was on ‘Indianness’. According to him the ideas of Indian thinkers as reflected in the ancient scriptures were full of social facts and therefore could be traced in the understanding of India’s cultural process and civilizational history. Surjit Sinha (1968) L. Endorsing P. Vidyarthi’s view, he said that Indian anthropologists responded promptly to the latest developments in the West but they gave logical priority to the Indian situation.

 

12) In India, anthropology began with the work of missionaries, traders and administrators, where the main focus was on the different cultural backgrounds of the Indian people. The rich tribal culture attracted the study of social anthropology. Tribal culture became a major area for social anthropological research. It continued with the changing trend and accommodated the study of village system, and Indian civilization. Other social institutions like religion, kinship, marriage etc.

 

The diversity of customs and diversity of Indian culture has created a unique field of research among social anthropologists of India. Various ideas such as dominant caste, sacred precincts, tribe-caste continuum, minor and major traditions, sanskritization etc. emerged, which gave a new direction to Indian anthropology.

 

Thus, a body of strong Indian anthropological thought was created. Indian anthropology continues to grow with new ideas. Emerging areas like ecology, developmental studies etc. are also coming up. Anthropologists in India take a keen interest in tribal studies. New challenges are also emerging in the era of globalization and Indian social anthropologists are focusing on that.

 

After independence, when the new government assumed power, India was faced with new challenges of social reform. The whole notion of Indian culture had to be remade, as diverse cultural spheres came under one roof. Various tribal societies and cultures were unable to cope with this changing situation.

 

Apart from administrative policies, Indian social anthropologists took initiative to overcome such crisis and showed interest in the study of diverse cultures in India under the common roof of Indian civilization. Government policies were influenced by these social anthropological works as these works were related to sensitive issues like tribal development. This trend continues in the field of Indian anthropology. Today, in the era of globalization, social anthropologists in India deal with new challenges faced by tribal communities.

 

Along with development studies, identity and gender issues are popular among them. The study of folk culture is a major area. Along with development studies, issues such as tribal displacement and resettlement also come up.

Rajik has been a major focus for anthropologists. Tribal art, the study of indigenous knowledge systems, etc. are gaining popularity with new global issues such as global warming.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

Social Anthropology Methods

 

1) Social Anthropology can be described as the scientific study of man, culture and society. The aim is to know the truth about the affairs of the society. It seeks to develop skills so that humans can lead a better life. For this the use of scientific method is necessary. If there’s science, there’s definitely a way. Theory, methodology and data go together. Social anthropology has a well-developed methodology for learning about societies.

 

2) What is unique to social anthropology ‘within the realm of social science’ is its fieldwork method which is the guiding force of the discipline. Law is logic. What do anthropologists do when they are faced with a problem – they try to solve it logically.

 

3) In short, they make logical sense for the problem. They argue how the problem can be solved logically so that the desired objective is met. It is the reasoning that leads to the attainment of the objectives of the reasoning in order to pursue the research problem. In short, the method is the logic of investigation; It is a role to fulfill an end.

4) Fieldwork and empirical tradition in social anthropological research have been constant features of social anthropology. It began with travelogues written by travelers who had been traveling to far-flung corners of the world for almost four hundred years since the ‘Age of Columbus’. As already discussed, these travelogues provided basic data for early social anthropologists. The facts gathered by these travelers, Mr.

 

5) Senior and government officials were valuable in making other Europeans aware of the diverse human life on earth.

6) Senior and government officials were valuable in making other Europeans aware of the diverse human life on earth.

7) Kshatriyas, and government officials were valuable in making other Europeans aware of the diverse human life on earth.

8) Many European thinkers became interested about non-European cultures and gradually the ‘Study of Man’ was initiated based on the accounts of travelers, missionaries and government officials.

9) The anthropologists of the nineteenth century were fully involved in the exploration of the diversity of human culture but they were detached from the harsh life of the actual field.

 

10) He used to sit in his house only watching the accounts given by other people. The value of fieldwork was realized in the early twentieth century when the approach to social anthropology changed. It was understood that it was very important for the social anthropologist to experience the real life situation in order to obtain accurate and relevant data. Many anthropologists of this time associated themselves with tribal groups. E.B. Tylor was the first scholar to stress the need for direct data-collection in anthropology, but Boas was the first to introduce the practice. The earliest attempts to collect professional data, as mentioned earlier,

 

11) was created in America by Franz Boas. He commanded the Jessup North Pacific Expedition in 1897. A second attempt at fieldwork was made in England in 1898 under the joint leadership of Hayden, Rivers and Seligman. This is known as the Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits.

12) The most outstanding fieldwork tradition in anthropology was developed by Malinowski. He believed that different aspects of people’s lives are interrelated. Malinowski also emphasized fieldwork as the primary method of collecting anthropological data. According to Malinowski (1922: 6), a cultural anthropologist “must have real scientific aims and know the values and norms of modern ethnography … he must apply a number of special methods to collect, manipulate and fix his evidence”. have to do”.

 

13) Malinowski established participation as an important technique of fieldwork. After Malinowski we come to A.R. Can be named. Radcliffe-Brown who did extensive fieldwork in the Andaman Islands.

14) Early fieldworkers sought to understand how all parts of society fit together to work. He insisted on expansion. He tried to gather every bit of information available on the field. He developed the habit of filling his notebooks with details of what he saw and heard, and those unprecedented ethnographic activities resulted in ethnographic monographs.

 

15) In fact, a social anthropologist has to live and work in two worlds. The field becomes the laboratory where one collects data and lives with the tribals very different from their own world. Once he is back from the field, he sits down with the collected data and starts analyzing them to draw conclusions.

 

16) Subjectivity became a major issue in this ethnographic account. Since social anthropology is an empirical discipline, it is characterized by an absence of deep respect for facts and little attention to their observation and description.

Due to taking it, it becomes weak. A self-indulgent attitude can produce disastrous effects. But, beyond all this, fieldwork became an essential part of social anthropology and the tradition evolved with some new methods and techniques which made themselves relevant in the present day context. Qualitative research that includes extensive descriptive accounts has become very useful and important in today’s world. Not only anthropology but also other disciplines such as sociology and management studies are involved in this type of research. But fieldwork is unique to social anthropology.

17) Fieldwork is a part of training in socio-cultural anthropology. Every anthropologist must undergo this training during his initial studies. It enables a student to view a foreign culture with objectivity.

 

18) Learning about two different societies (including our own) gives a student a comparative perspective i.e. he/she is able to assess the similarities or dissimilarities between any two societies or cultures. The comparative method occupies a very important place in the fieldwork tradition in anthropology. A comprehensive comparison was attempted by social anthropologists during the nineteenth century. It pertains to the society as a whole and also to particular institutions and practices such as the kinship system, marriage practices, magical practices and religious beliefs etc.

19) There is a clear recognition of history as a method in the anthropological monograph. There are two classical streams in social anthropology employing history as a method of study. One use of history is non-chronological. Evolutionary anthropologists used such history as a method to study society. The second stream is Marxist.

20) Another important method in anthropology is the functional method. functionalism,

 

 

emerged as a method of study in social anthropology

Rebellion against the historical method. Interestingly, evolutionary historicism was discredited by the emergence of empiricism. Empiricism is experience. When social anthropologists made holistic studies through empiricism, functionalism came to be known as a new idiom of methodology. Functionalism advocated a holistic study of society through fieldwork.

New methods in social anthropology are emerging in response to new challenges with new demands. The technologies associated with these methods are also changing. New techniques have also been designed to suit the methodological demands. The traditional techniques are – observation, schedules, questionnaire, interview, case study, survey, genealogy etc. Along with new methods such as ethnography, new techniques are emerging. The emergence of new branches like developmental anthropology, visual anthropology etc. are also demanding new methodological frameworks. Anthropology like any other discipline is also experiencing new dimensions with the passage of time. The methodological dimension is also not aloof from such changes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nature And Scope Of Social Anthropology

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Scientific Method

 

 

Scientific method refers to any such method of research, by which unbiased and systematic knowledge is obtained. “A. Wolf says that” In a broad sense, any research method by which science is created and expanded is called scientific method. Scientific method is the era of modern era science. No matter how simple or complex the phenomena are, they are studied in a scientific manner. Generally people understand a specific type of subject matter by the word science. For example – biology, chemistry, engineering, physics etc. But it is wrong to understand so. Science has nothing to do with the subject matter. Any subject matter can be a science if it can be studied through the scientific method. That’s why Stuart Chase has written – “Science is concerned with the scientific method and not with the subject matter.”

Benberg and Shebat have said a similar thing – “Science is a definite way of looking at the world.” In fact, science refers to systematic knowledge that is obtained through the scientific method. That is, systematic knowledge is science. The scientific method is one and the same in all branches; the unity of all sciences is in its method, not in its content alone. The person who classifies any kind of facts, who sees their mutual relation and sees their sequence, uses the scientific method and is a man of science. These facts may be related to the history of human appearance, the social statistics of our great cities, the atmosphere of distant stars. It is not the facts themselves that constitute science but the method by which they are acted upon.

 

“According to ‘Encyclopædia Britannica’, “The scientific method is a collective term that explains the various processes with the help of which science is created.

 

 

Goode and Hurt have written – “Science can be popularly defined as the systematic accumulation of knowledge.” Physics studies physical organs, zoology studies living beings and botany studies trees and plants. does. This

Like other sciences also there are different subject matter and all these subject matter are different from each other. But all these are called science. Now the question arises that what is it that brings all these together as a unit of science? The only answer to this is the method of study i.e. the scientific method.

 

According to Karl Pearson – “The unity of all science is in its method and not in its subject matter.”

 

Lundberg has also said a similar thing, “The scientific method is the same in all branches. It is clear from the above discussions that the knowledge obtained from the study done by the scientific method is called science.

 

Vijan means scientific method, after knowing that it is necessary to know which method would be called a scientific husband. Generally, that method is called scientific method in which the researcher studies a subject, problem or event by being neutral or impartial. Observation, fact collection under this. Classification tabulation, analysis and generalization comes.

 

August Comte said that the whole world is governed by ‘fixed natural laws’ and the explanation of these laws is possible only through the scientific method. Since social events are a part of this nature, therefore, like natural events, the study of social events is possible only through scientific method. The scientific method is not dependent on emotional elemental thinking but on a systematic methodology of observation, testing, experiment and classification. Various scholars have defined the scientific method in their own words.

 

Lundberg has written in relation to the scientific method – “Broadly speaking, the scientific method is the systematic observation, classification and analysis of facts.

 

Explaining the nature of the scientific method, Karl Pearson has written, “The scientific method is characterized by the following characteristics – (a) Careful and accurate classification of facts and observation of their correlation and sequence (b) Discovery of scientific laws through creative imagination” (C) Equally useful for all persons of self-criticism and common sense.”

 

Barnard has given the definition of the scientific method, saying, “Science can be defined in the form of six major processes occurring in it – testing, verification, definition, classification, organization and refinement, which includes prediction and practice.” It is clear from the above definitions that the scientific method is a systematic system. Under this, facts are collected, verified, classified and analyzed. From this, general rules are discovered and predictions are also made in relation to it.

 

 

Characteristics Of The Scientific Method

 

Based on the definitions of the scientific method, some of its main features become clear. These characteristics can be understood in the following way

 

Logicality – The scientific method is not based on emotion, emotion or superstition. In this the emphasis is on logical thinking. The scientific method emphasizes the cause-effect relationship between events. In other words, it can be said that every incident has some or the other reason and no incident happens without any reason. Under the scientific method, an attempt is made to find the cause and effect. For example, under superstition, the specialty of the scientific method is to search for the real causes of a disease without considering any divine power behind it. In fact, there is a hand of special germs behind the disease. It means to say that here germs are the cause of disease.

 

Generality – Through the scientific method, an attempt is made to find such rules or facts which can always be valid in similar situations. This method does not lay emphasis on the study of any particular event or unit, but on the study of general events. That is, the scientific method cannot be a science of the specific, it lays emphasis on general discovery so that general principles and rules can be rendered on the basis of various facts. If any general rule is formulated regarding a particular incident or fact, then its area is very narrow. The units collected under the scientific method represent the whole class and not the individual. This does not mean that they will be unconditionally authentic in all circumstances and conditions. They are valid only under normal circumstances. In this sense a general scientific rule can be formed. The characteristic of the scientific method is also common in the sense that its use is the same in different sciences. In this context, Karl Pearson has also written, “The unity of all sciences lies in their method and not in the subject matter.” In general, the scientific method is the same in all branches of science.

 

, Cause and Effect Relationship – The scientific method is based on cause and effect relationships. Every event has a reason. No incident is completely free. There is some reason behind its happening. The scientific method tries to find out all the causes due to which events occur. That is, it explains the cause-effect relationships between different events. eg

If a person is sick in the form of war, then by scientific method, an attempt is made to find out the reason for his illness, or it is understood to be the wrath of some deity.

 

, Observation – Observation is the most important feature of the scientific method. The researcher directly observes for the collection of facts under the scientific method. Observation is called the classical method of scientific discovery. Highlighting the importance of observation in the scientific method, Goode and Hatt have said, “Science begins with observation and ultimately has to be imposed on observation to confirm it. Therefore, the sociologist should train himself to observe carefully.” In observation, facts are collected by observing and examining the phenomena from an objective point of view, which forms the basis of the method of logic.

 

 

, Verifiable – The conclusions obtained by the scientific method can be verified at any time. To what extent the truth obtained in the past is true now. This information is subject to verification. It means to say that once a conclusion is drawn by the scientific method, the same conclusion is obtained for the second time as well, then it is considered verified. That is, the conclusions obtained in the scientific method can be re-examined. In this context, Luther says that the method by which the facts cannot be re-examined can be philosophical or imaginary rather than the scientific method. Therefore, verification is very important for the scientific method. characteristics of the scientific method

 

, Objectivity – Objectivity has an important place in the scientific method. The meaning of objectivity is to see or know the object or event as it is (Characteristics of Scientific Method). There is observation. There is no place for favoritism and prejudice in the scientific method. That is, a person does not give importance to his verifiability, personal wishes, preferences and perceptions at the time of study. According to Green, ‘objectivity implies the existence of a fact 3. Willingness and ability to examine objectivity or evidence objectively. Objectivity is a difficult task in the social sciences. Therefore, along with self-control, the researcher should use such techniques so that the scope of bias and prejudice is minimized. The student has to study by remaining absolutely neutral. He should not resort to any kind of moral partiality or mental dishonesty.

 

– Certainty There is certainty in the scientific method. Under this, an attempt is made to find certain facts on certain grounds. In the scientific method, no importance is given to the elements that raise doubts. Certain terms are used in scientific study. It is difficult to draw definite conclusions from the use of uncertain terms. If the study is objective and can be verified by re-examination, then there must be certainty in the conclusions drawn from it.

 

 

 

Predictability – An important feature of the scientific method is the ability to predict or predict. On the basis of the study of work-cause relations and various factors, information about an object or event is obtained. On the basis of this information, predictions can be made regarding what will be the nature of that object or event in the future. Prediction done under scientific method is different from astrologer or other prediction. When the researcher finds the causes of an event and propounds general rules and principles in relation to it, then on the basis of that he predicts about the occurrence of such events in similar conditions. It means to say that by studying on the basis of scientific method, the student develops such an ability that he can make predictions about similar events.

 

 

 

 

Main Steps of the Scientific Method

 

Scientific method is a systematic and orderly method. Many processes are involved in this. Various scholars have expressed their views regarding the orderliness of these processes. These scholars have discussed the main steps of the scientific method. Following are the views given by some prominent scholars

According to Lundberg, the four main steps of the scientific method are (i) the working hypothesis, the observation and recording of data, the classification and organization of the collected facts (the classification and organization of data) (iv) Generalization.

 

P . B. Young has discussed six steps of the scientific method (i) Selection of study problem (ii) Formulation of working hypothesis (iii) Observation and data collection (iv) Graphing of facts (v) Classification of facts (vi) Scientific generalization .

Avalbernen has discussed five levels of scientific method (1) Selection of problem and formulation of hypothesis. (ii) Collection of actual facts (iii) Classification and tabulation. (iv) Drawing conclusions (v) Examination and verification of conclusions.

Some major levels can be mentioned on the basis of different stages of scientific method given by different scholars.

That is, different scholars have explained the steps of scientific method from their own point of view. Keeping in mind the views of all the scholars, the following are the main steps of the scientific method:

 

(i) Choice of problem

(ii) Formulation of hypothesis

(iii) Determination of study area

(iv) Selection of study instruments Restau demand

(v) Observation and fact compilation Shah

(vi) Classification and Analysis

(vii) Generalization and formulation of rules

 

Selection of Problem – The first step in the scientific method is the selection of the problem. The student first selects the subject on the basis of contemporary importance, practical utility and curiosity. This subject becomes the first basis of scientific research. The problem is selected on the basis of related literature and information. For this, as many articles, details or ideas related to the problem as can be found from books, reference books or magazines are collected. People related to this are also questioned. Goode and Hatt have written, “The whole related to any study includes many phenomena, but science confines itself to some of these phenomena only.” Studyer. Selects the problem on the basis of awareness and interest.

 

Formulation of Hypothesis – After selecting the problem, the researcher formulates the hypothesis related to the problem. Hypothesis is such a statement made before the study whose authenticity is checked on the basis of the facts to be collected. Lundberg has said, “Hypothesis is a working generalization, whose truth remains to be tested.” Hypothesis provides direction to scientific study. Construction of hypothesis saves time, energy and money. On the basis of this facts are collected and through these facts the authenticity of the hypothesis is checked. The researcher builds the hypothesis on the basis of his guesses, understanding, imagination and experiences. General culture, literature, kindness and philosophy also become sources of imagination.

 

Determination of Study-Area – Study-area refers to the area which is marked for collecting the facts related to the study. That is, the student himself decides which field he has to study. Study – Studyer when the field is fixed. One’s effort is within a limit, he is saved from unnecessary efforts. If the study area is large, then facts are collected from representative units. Sampling method is used to select the representative units.

 

, Selection of Tools & Techniques – Selection of tools and techniques is done keeping in mind the hypothesis and the study area. The selection of the above instruments and techniques is very important for studying through scientific method. The researcher chooses various methods and instruments for the compilation of reliable data. That is, it determines whether observation, questionnaire, schedule, personal study method, interview or other methods will be used to collect the data. Prepares an outline regarding these instruments and techniques. For example, preparation of interview guide, questionnaire and schedule etc.

 

, Observation and Data Collection – Scientific study also starts with observation. Generally observation means to see. But in the scientific method, the meaning of observation is to observe and test any object and event from an objective point of view. In observation, all the human senses are used as much as possible, after that the facts are collected. In addition to observation in fact collection, facts are also collected through other methods such as interview, questionnaire, schedule and personal study method. Data are collected to check the validity of the hypothesis. On the basis of these, cause-effect relationships are established and the correctness of the hypothesis is checked.

 

Classification and Interpretation – After collecting the facts under the scientific method, those facts are classified. That is, facts are divided into different classes or categories on the basis of their similarity, dissimilarity and other characteristics. The collected facts become simple, clear and meaningful through this process. When the facts are divided into different categories, then they are analyzed. The collected facts are analyzed in an unbiased and unbiased manner so that cause-effect relationships are known.

 

Generalization and formation of law – Generalization is done on the basis of analysis of the facts obtained. That is, general conclusions are drawn. On the basis of these conclusions, the hypotheses are verified or disproved. It is necessary to note here that in both these situations (verified or unproven) the conclusion is scientific. The scientific importance of the study does not diminish if the hypotheses are not verified. The conclusions drawn by classification, analysis and generalization of facts are not general.

The basis of rules and principles are formed. That is, on the basis of findings, rules and principles are formulated. There is an interrelationship between the different stages of the scientific method. Therefore, real knowledge is attained only after passing through various stages. In this context, Carl Pearson has said, “There is no shortcut to truth; there is no other way to gain knowledge of the world except through the scientific method.”

The scientific method is the systematic study of a subject matter within a limited range. This method requires great patience, courage, hard work, creative imagination and objectivity. One cannot use the scientific method without a scientific assumption before starting to work on the scientific method; A researcher should precisely define the problem which is the subject of his research. The clearer the definition, the simpler the research work. The main steps of the scientific method are given below:

1. Observation: The first step in the scientific method is to observe the subject matter of research closely and carefully. This observation often requires the aid of instruments. These tools have to be accurate.
2. Recording: The second step required in the scientific method is to record the observation carefully. An unbiased objectivity is very essential in doing this.
3. Classification: After that the collected material has to be classified and organized. This is a very serious step. In the words of Karl Pearson, “The classification of facts, their sequence and recognition of relative importance is the task of science.” Classification is done in such a way that a relationship and similarity can be seen among the scattered elements. Thus the subject matter is arranged on a logical basis.

 

 

4. Generalization: The fourth step in a scientific method is to find a general rule or generalize on the basis of similarities in the classified case. This general rule is called a scientific principle. In MacIver’s words, “Such a law is just another name for a sequence of carefully described and uniformly recurring conditions”.
5. Verification: A scientific system does not stop after making generalizations. Verification of these generalizations is also necessary. Scientific theories can be verified and such verification is their essential condition without which they cannot be called scientific.

imperative of science

What are the requirements of any study to be called scientific, it is now clear from the above explanation of the scientific method. The essential elements or characteristics of science are given below:

1. Scientific Method: As it has been said earlier that any subject is called science not because of its subject matter but because of the scientific method.
2. Factual: Science is the study of facts. It searches for the real truth. Its content is not ideal but factual.
3. Universal Scientific principles are universal. They are found rue in all countries and at all times.
4. Logical: A scientific law is true. Its veracity can be checked at any time. The more times it is tested, the more times it will be proven true.
5. Discovery of cause-effect relationship: Science discovers the cause and effect relationship in its subject matter and presents a universal and verifiable rule in the same relation.
6. Prediction: Science can make predictions on the subject of cause-effect relationship on the basis of universal and verifiable rules. The foundation of science rests on this belief in cause and effect. The scientist knows that ‘what will happen’ can be judged on the basis of ‘what will happen’ because the law of causation is universal and immutable.

social anthropology as a science

An examination of social anthropology based on the above six basic principles reveals that social anthropology has all the essential elements of science.

1. Social Anthropology uses the scientific method: All methods of social anthropology are scientific. they do scientific experiments

Social relations differ from psychological relations and in either case social anthropology studies anthropology in the context of society. According to contemporary American anthropologists, social anthropology is only a branch of cultural anthropology because culture is a broader concept than society and is far broader than what is involved in the study of social life.

Nature of Social Anthropology

Social Anthropology is a science and to know this fact it is necessary to understand what science is. Some people start considering a particular subject matter as chemistry or engineering etc. Common people differentiate between science and art in this sense. But it would be better to let the scientists explain what science is. Some definitions of science are given below:

1. Besanz, J. and Besanz, M. (2010). It is the attitude rather than the content that is the test of science.
2. Green is a method of science investigation.
3. White. Science is scientific.
4. Weinberg and Shabat. Science is a special way of looking at the world.
5. Carl Pearson. The unity of science lies in its method, not in its nature.

Apart from these scientists, Karl, Churchman, Acoff, Gillin and Gillin and many social anthropologists have also considered science as a method. It is because of method that it is different from art. It is because of method that all the sciences, even if they have different fields,

called science.

 

 

 

 

Steps Of The Scientific Method

 

The scientific method is the systematic study of a subject matter within a limited range. This method requires great patience, courage, hard work, creative imagination and objectivity. One cannot use the scientific method without a scientific assumption before starting to work on the scientific method; A researcher should precisely define the problem which is the subject of his research. The clearer the definition, the simpler the research work. The main steps of the scientific method are given below:

1. Observation: The first step in the scientific method is to observe the subject matter of research closely and carefully. This observation often requires the aid of instruments. These tools have to be accurate.
2. Recording: The second step required in the scientific method is to record the observation carefully. An unbiased objectivity is very essential in doing this.
3. Classification: After that the collected material has to be classified and organized. This is a very serious step. In the words of Karl Pearson, “The classification of facts, their sequence and recognition of relative importance is the task of science.” Classification is done in such a way that a relationship and similarity can be seen among the scattered elements. Thus the subject matter is arranged on a logical basis.

 

 

4. Generalization: The fourth step in a scientific method is to find a general rule or generalize on the basis of similarities in the classified case. This general rule is called a scientific principle. In MacIver’s words, “Such a law is just another name for a sequence of carefully described and uniformly recurring conditions”.
5. Verification: A scientific system does not stop after making generalizations. Verification of these generalizations is also necessary. Scientific theories can be verified and such verification is their essential condition without which they cannot be called scientific.

imperative of science

What are the requirements of any study to be called scientific, it is now clear from the above explanation of the scientific method. The essential elements or characteristics of science are given below:

1. Scientific Method: As it has been said earlier that any subject is called science not because of its subject matter but because of the scientific method.
2. Factual: Science is the study of facts. It searches for the real truth. Its content is not ideal but factual.
3. Universal Scientific principles are universal. They are found rue in all countries and at all times.
4. Logical: A scientific law is true. Its veracity can be checked at any time. The more times it is tested, the more times it will be proven true.
5. Discovery of cause-effect relationship: Science discovers the cause and effect relationship in its subject matter and presents a universal and verifiable rule in the same relation.
6. Prediction: Science can make predictions on the subject of cause-effect relationship on the basis of universal and verifiable rules. The foundation of science rests on this belief in cause and effect. The scientist knows that ‘what will happen’ can be judged on the basis of ‘what will happen’ because the law of causation is universal and immutable.

 

 

 

Social Anthropology As A Science

 

An examination of social anthropology based on the above six basic principles reveals that social anthropology has all the essential elements of science.

1. Social Anthropology uses the scientific method: All methods of social anthropology are scientific. they do scientific experiments

Techniques like schedule, participant observation, historical procedure and case history etc. First, they gather facts through observation. Then they are recorded in a systematic form. Later on the matter is classified and finally general principles are formulated on the basis of accepted facts. The validity of these theories is examined.

2. Social anthropology is factual: Social anthropology is the comparative study of facts about social phenomena, relations and reactions. Participant observation is its main method. In this method an anthropologist goes to live among the people he has to study. Thus his study is in line with the facts.

 

 

3. The principles of social anthropology are universal: the laws of social anthropology hold true in all countries as long as the conditions are similar; There is no scope for exceptions in them.
4. The principles of social anthropology are true: Thus the principles of social anthropology always prove to be true on verification and even on re-verification. Their validity can be verified by anyone and at any time.
5. Social Anthropology defines cause-effect relationships: Social anthropology explores cause-effect relationships in social facts, events and relationships, etc. For example, an anthropologist, after his comparative study of different cultures, brings us to a particular Describes the lifestyle found. Culture and to what extent lifestyle changes with culture change. Thus, social anthropology answers the ‘how’ with the ‘what’.
6. Social Anthropology can predict: On the basis of cause-effect relationship, social anthropologist can predict future and make predictions about social reactions and events etc.

Shyvani can do it. He can decide ‘what will happen’ later on the basis of ‘what if’. Knowing cause-effect relationships.

For example, by observing cultural changes, he can predict changes in lifestyle.

It is clear from the aforesaid discussion of the nature of social anthropology that social anthropology is a science. There is an abstract form of thoughts in it. Scientific study is possible only with abstract forms. The laws of these abstract forms determine the reaction of concrete things. Thus the laws of social anthropology are universal and true in practice. Social anthropology has revolutionized the perceptions of psychologists, sociologists, politicians and social reformers, given a hope for the organization of human society in the future and offered useful suggestions for deciding the pattern of its organization.

Objectives of Social Anthropology

The primary objective of social anthropology is to collect information about human nature. Human nature is a controversial subject. Different scholars have emphasized different aspects of human nature. Primitive man and society represent human nature in its most rudimentary and crude form. Hence their study is useful for understanding the basic imperatives of human nature without much influence of culture on them.

Another objective of social anthropology is the study of the processes and consequences of cultural interactions. Most primitive societies are gradually coming into contact with more developed cultures. This contact is gradually creating social, religious, economic and political problems and chaos. Administrators and social planners need the help of social anthropologists in understanding the processes and consequences of cultural interactions. According to the Royal Anthropological Society of Great Britain and Ireland, the following are the most important objectives of social anthropology:

1. Study of primitive culture in its present form.
2. Study of cultural interaction and specific processes.

 

 

This includes exploring the influences of outside groups causing cultural change.

3. Reconstruction of social history.
4. Discover universally accepted social laws.

Thus the main objective of social anthropology is to study human society, social institutions, culture and the bonds of kinship in their earliest form. In addition to being useful for the understanding of present-day human societies, it aids in our knowledge of human history as well as the nature of social institutions. Therefore social anthropology has a close relationship with history and archaeology.

 

 

Usefulness of the study of primitive societies

The primary objective of social anthropology is to understand primitive people, the cultures they created, and the social systems in which they lived and functioned.” Social anthropology thus primarily focuses on the study of primitive societies.

Ralph Piddington points out the following characteristics of primitive societies:

1. The primary characteristic of primitive societies is illiteracy and absence of writing or literature.
2. The social organization of primitive societies is based on small groups like gotras, tribal totems etc.
3. The technical level of development is very low.
4. Social relations based on locality and blood relations

St. Important.

5. There is generally a lack of economic specialization and a high degree of division of labour.

Thus primitive societies are small communities. Robert Redfield has called it “folk society”. According to him, lack of systematic art, science and theology are also the characteristics of primitive societies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Origin And Development Of Anthropology

 

1) Man and his environment have always been for themselves a perennial source of wonder and contemplation. This consciousness led him to search for the realities. Therefore it is futile to talk about the beginning of the study of man. For the origins of systematic thinking, we usually refer to classical Greek civilization, specifically the writings of Herodotus in the fifth century BCE. Not only Herodotus, many other Greek and Roman historians like Socrates, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Plato etc. are considered as leading social thinkers.

 

2) He first expressed his vital interest in human affairs from the perspective of the universe. His approach was purely humanistic and he propounded a social theory from biological point of view.

3) Anthropology as a distinct discipline emerged recently in the nineteenth century. Sidney Slotkin traces the history of several anthropological sub-disciplines to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in his book ‘Readings in Early Anthropology’. But he also agreed that real commercial interest in the subject did not appear until the nineteenth century. The unusual people and their unknown way of life aroused the interest of sailors and other explorers. As a result, a society called ‘Observers if Man’ was established in Paris in 1800.

 

 

4) By an association of naturalists and medicine-men. This society promoted the study of natural history by providing guidance to travelers and explorers to distant places. But in the meantime, for a long series of Napoleonic wars, commerce and foreign travel were disrupted. Naturally the study of natural history was neglected and instead, philosophy, ethnography and political

The questions came to the fore. The society did not last long and in 1838 another society was established in London for the protection of the aborigines. Eminent scholars joined the society whose aims were political and social rather than scientific. Again in a very short time the need for a scientific society was felt. One of the influential members, Mr. Hodgkin, together with several other eminent persons, inaugurated an ‘Ethnological Society’ in Berlin in 1839.

 

5) Eminent naturalist Milne-Edwards took an active part there. A similar society was formed in London in 1841 and soon after in 1842 a third ‘Ethnological Society’ was established in New York. The establishment of ethnographic societies can be taken as an important milestone in the emergence of anthropology.

6) Hence anthropology is considered as a product of scientific development in the western world. The tradition of social philosophy continued until the advent of industrialization in the West, and it emerged as a distinct discipline in the nineteenth century; Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859) probably sparked the enthusiasm of all scientists in various fields. Darwin showed that life evolved from unicellular organisms and went through the process of evolution on its way to complex multicellular organisms. This idea not only opened new avenues for zoology, anatomy, physiology, philology, paleontology, archeology and geology; It also accelerated the pace of socio-cultural studies.

 

7) A group of intellectuals like Spencer, Morgan, Tylor influenced by Darwin came to the conclusion that evolution operated not only in terms of material aspect of mankind but also in cultural life. Accordingly, the year 1859 may be taken as the date of birth of Anthropology; RR Marrett (1912) called Anthropology the ‘child of Darwin’. In the same year 1859, Paul Broca founded an ‘Anthropological Society’ in Paris.

 

8) Broca himself was an anatomist and human biologist. He advocated the idea of general biology by synthesizing all the specialized studies to understand man. Anthropology made significant progress in America after the publication of Broca.

9) On the other hand in 1863, James Hunt withdrew himself from the British Ethnological Society and founded the Anthropological Society in London with dissident members of the Ethnological Society. Hunt declared Anthropology as the ‘complete science of man’ which deals with the origin and development of humanity. In 1868, Thomas Huxley was elected President of the Anthropological Society.

 

10) Despite his biological orientation, he was associated with the Ethnological Society in London for a long time. However, it was at this time that the work of the Ethnological Society in London lasted for a long time. However, this was the time when the work of the Ethnological Society and the Anthropological Society began

11) created a ruckus together. The difference was kept only in the names.

12) For almost thirty years, from 1840 to 1870, a great debate continued with the two words- Anthropology and Anthropology. France, Germany and England highly appreciated this theme. In fact, anthropology gained immense popularity throughout Europe. International Congresses of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archeology were held in different parts of India in 1866, 1867 and 1868.

 

 

13) Europe. In 1871 the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland was formed. But in 1873 there was again a split; A new ‘London Anthropological Society’ emerged. This new society produced a magazine named ‘Anthropology’. International communication, research and publication were the main objectives of this society. By this time, such names as anthropology, ethnography, ethnography, archaeology, prehistory, linguistics and linguistics were firmly established.

14) Paul Broca, in his address ‘The Progress of Anthropology’ (1869), pointed out that anatomy together with biology formed the principal basis of anthropology, on which the final ideas of general anthropology were derived through rigorous synthesis. Could After a few years, anthropology acquired a truly synthetic character and became respected both in Europe and in America.

 

15) In Europe, various names are still in vogue as anthropology, ethnography, prehistory and linguistics; They complement each other to cover the entire study of man. But in the Americas and most of Asia, the word anthropology is sufficient to convey the full meaning. Before the discovery of America by Columbus, Native Americans had their own indigenous ideas about the nature of man.

 

16) Later, the European tradition of science and scholarship touched them as was the case with Africa, Oceania and parts of Asia. It is said that the English, French, Germans and other Europeans provided anthropology with a tradition of scholarship, books and theories while the Americans provided a fine laboratory nearby.

17) Lewis Henry Morgan was one of the world’s foremost personalities who combined his personal intensive field work in a native culture with comparative work and general theory. Missionaries and others who lived at the time, though they attempted to publish their observations, differed from Morgan’s position because

His remarks had a worldwide perspective. In fact, Morgan founded the great branch of anthropology known as socio-cultural anthropology through his comparative analysis of family and kinship structure.

18) In the last part of the nineteenth century, some anthropologists became interested in the study of racial stock and also in the biological evolution of man. France has contributed well to prehistory and physical anthropology. Germany established first a psychological and later a geographical tradition of cultural anthropology. Theodore Weitz developed basic physical anthropology, which embraced people all over the world. Adolf Basten speculated about the basic psychological makeup in humans by surveying the cultures of people around the world. Friedrich Ratzel blended geography with anthropology and created a new subfield, anthropology.

19) The concept of culture given by Sir Edward Burnett Tyler (1832–1917) established anthropology as an academically recognized discipline in Europe. Tylor is considered the father of modern anthropology. American anthropologists also believe the same.

 

20) The word ‘culture’ was originally used in the field of biology; Its German equivalent ‘Kultur’ was applied to human societies in the 18th century (Kroeber and Kluckhohn: 1963) to correlate behavioral variations with racial differences. Tylor, in his landmark book ‘Primitive Culture’ (1871), first defined culture in the following words; “Culture or civilization taken in its broadest ethnographic sense is that complex whole, including knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other.”

 

 

21) other abilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. The discipline of sociology and anthropology emerged as twin sisters after the industrial revolution and colonial expansion, respectively.

22) After the First World War, the approach to anthropology changed greatly, the 19th century anthropologists were completely unfamiliar with the people they were dealing with. They depended on stale and fabricated data collected by other non-anthropologists like explorers, missionaries, administrators etc. As anthropologists just sat in their libraries and made their proposals, there was a lot of speculation involved. They relied mainly on comparison. Brownisław Malinowski (1884–1942) was the first to break this trend. He taught the importance of field-study as opposed to speculation about primitive people.

23) During World War II, American anthropologists began to focus on the psychological problems and issues of entire nations in order to understand the basic characteristics of developed nations.

24) Civilizations like Japanese, Chinese and Russian etc. National character studies became very popular during this period. At the end of World War I, anthropology was found by the French scholar Claude Lévi-Strauss, whose emphasis was confined to the formal aspect of culture.

25) By the end of World War II, the physical aspect of anthropology also took a new turn. It was no longer a study limited to a variety of measurements; The rediscovery of genetics led to the study of growth and development. Advances in the study of human genetics provided a strong basis for the integration between physical anthropology and social anthropology. The basic interest of anthropologists in prehistory is more or less the same as that of primitive ethnography.

 

26) British scholars not only gave an ideological leadership to this field, they organized the first ever ‘International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences’ (ICAES) in 1934, in which nine hundred anthropologists, ethnologists and other related fields from forty three countries participated. Scientists participated. By that time, British evolutionary and diffusionist theories suffered setbacks but structural-functional theory emerged as the most important school.

 

27) The period can be termed as the initial phase of institutionalization of Anthropology. It was further strengthened by British social anthropology, which gained a certain recognition on a global scale. The influence of British anthropology was prominent at the next three congresses in Copenhagen (1938), Brussels (1948) and Vienna (1952), but after the ravages of World War II it was nearly dead and in need of revival.

28) The Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, held in Philadelphia (USA) in 1956, showed the post-war dominance of American anthropology. The Weiner Graun Foundation for Anthropological Research Inc. in New York. There was a notable anthropological conference organized by A.L. Kroeber was presided over. It was also significant because Soviet delegates participated in this ICAES for the first time. The American model of anthropology was followed in this Congress instead of the British model. According to LP Vidyarti (1979), a unified image of anthropology emerged at the Vienna Symposium in 1952, but its study was based on planning and deliberative approach.

 

 

29) The work on ‘Integrated Man’ was done at the fifth ICAES in 1956. A book called ‘Current Anthropology’ by William Thomas (1956) and a magazine called ‘Current Anthropology’ edited by Soule

also. The tax (from 1960) further ensured the image of integration. As a result, at the Paris Congress (1960), the structural-functional school was found to be deeply entrenched and the American model of anthropology dominantly gained ground.

30) A large number of collaborators of present anthropology under the dynamic guidance of Prof. Sol. Kar was able to connect the whole world with human science. Soviet ethnography was found to have developed along the lines of evolutionary theory and was later modified by the writings of Marx, Engels and Lenin. Thus, new dimensions were added to anthropology, which was quite balanced and free from Anglo-American influence. The concept of colonial anthropology or neo-imperialism is a relatively recent achievement in anthropology. Scholars from third world countries were neglected for a long time. Now they are also getting due importance; Various sessions of ICAES have seen an increased rate of participation. But despite all these recent developments, we should not forget the beginning of anthropology which was blessed with European and American courage.

 

31) Anthropology is a young discipline in India. By the term ‘Indian anthropology’, André Bete (1996) refers to the study of society and culture in India by anthropologists, regardless of their nationality. There were many anthropologists inside or outside India who took interest in the study of Indian society and culture. However, the origin of anthropology dates back to the late 19th century with the ethnographic compilation of the tradition, customs and beliefs of various tribes and castes in different provinces of India.

 

32) Prof. D.N. Majumdar found the beginning of Indian anthropology in the establishment of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, inaugurated by Sir William Jones in 1774. But there is no concrete evidence for the emergence of anthropology in India during the 18th century. It is true that the Asiatic Society began to publish essays of anthropological and antiquarian interest in its journal and proceedings, but they were all written by government officials and missionaries who had no academic interest.

33) True anthropological work in the world scene began in the 20th century except for Tylor’s pioneering work. Tylor in his book ‘Anthropology’ (1881) discussed the language, race, physical characteristics, customs and practices of primitive man.

34) Old remains of people as well as people as part of anthropology. Their views were mainly derived from the reports submitted by administrators and missionaries who had penetrated various parts of the world in the wake of trade and commerce and subsequent colonization.

35) In the late 19th century, administrators and missionaries in India as in other parts of the world wrote a lot about the Indian people and their way of life. After colonization, the administrators took more interest in the issues of the colonial peoples for good governance in the newly acquired territories. Risley, Dalton, Thurston, O’Malley, Russell, Crooke, Blunt, Mills and other trained British personnel posted in different parts of India wrote compendiums on tribes and castes on India.

36) After this, anthropology progressed successfully in India throughout the century. Indian anthropologists borrowed ideas, framework and procedures of work from western anthropologists and practiced ‘self-study’ instead of studying ‘other culture’. But his work became unique with respect to pattern assumptions, selection of data, criteria of relevance and some other matters.

 

37) N.K. Bose (1963) published a booklet titled “Fifty Years of Science in India, Progress of Anthropology and Archaeology” prepared under the auspices of the Indian Science Congress Association from Calcutta. He discussed the progress of anthropology in India under the headings- Prehistoric Archaeology, Physical Anthropology and Cultural Anthropology. After Bose, L.P. students who tried to focus on the major trends in anthropology in the course of its development in India.

 

38) His paper was presented at the VIIth ICAES in Moscow in 1964. In another paper published in the same year, Vidyarthi specifically mentioned some of the recent trends in village studies, caste studies, studies of leadership and power structure, religion, kinship and social organization. Tribal village, even applied anthropology. The development of anthropology in the Indian context has been monitored from time to time by both Indian and foreign scholars. However in the light of Vidyarti and Sinha, we can divide the development of Indian anthropology into the following historical phases.

1. Early Phase (1774–1919)

39) The establishment of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1774 is regarded as the beginning of the scientific study of ‘nature and man’ in India. Many anthropological studies were initiated through the efforts of the Asiatic Society under the leadership of the founder-president Sir William Jones. The Society gave rise to a journal which reflected scholarly interest in the diversity of Indian customs. British administrators, missionaries, travelers and other writers had the opportunity to publish their collected information on tribal culture and village life. Not a single journal of the Asiatic Society was published in 1784, Indian Antiquary in 1872, Bihar and Orissa Riser in 1915

In 1921 many magazines like the magazine of the French Society and Men in India came out one by one.

40) Thus the foundation stone of anthropology was laid in a systematic way in the form of ethnographic mapping. Hence the phase is considered as the initial phases in the history of Indian anthropology. Inspiration was drawn from the British anthropologists who came to work in India. For example, W.H.R. The river turned its attention to the Todas of the Nilgiri Hills; A.R.Radcliffe-Brown with the Andaman Islanders, G.H. Seligman and B.G. Seligman focused on the Vedas of Ceylon etc.

 

 

Formative Phase (1920–1949)

 

1) University level. The ‘formative phase’ of ethnographic studies took a new turn in 1920 when social anthropology was included in the postgraduate curriculum of the University of Calcutta. Although anthropology found a place in the University of Calcutta as a subsidiary subject in 1918, it required two more years to gain proper recognition.

 

2) An independent Anthropology Department came up in 1920 which was a major achievement for the discipline itself. K.P. Chattopadhyay was the first professor of anthropology in Calcutta who was trained at Cambridge by W.H.R. Rivers and AC Haddon. RP Chanda became the first lecturer there. Anthropology departments in Delhi, Lucknow and Gauhati universities were created in 1947, 1950 and 1952 respectively. Thereafter, a series of universities viz.

 

 

3) Saugarh, Madras, Pune, Ranchi, Dibrugarh, Utkal, Ravi Shankar, Karnataka, North Bengal, North-Eastern Hills etc. have been asked to include Anthropology wing in their academic setup.

 

Analytical Period (1950–1990)

 

1) The contact of Indian anthropologists with American anthropologists took place after the Second World War and especially after the independence of India. American anthropologists like Morris Opler, Oscar Lewis, David Mandelbaum and many of their students came to India

2) Carry out a systematic study of Indian villages to test some of your own hypotheses. Indian anthropologists include D.N. Majumdar, M.N. Srinivas and S.C. Dubey made notable contributions to community and village studies. The American anthropologist R. Redfield, M. Singer, M. Marriott and Bernard S. Cohn devoted themselves to the study of the dimensions of Indian civilization. Redfield’s ‘Great Traditions and Little Traditions’ as well as the ‘Folk-Urban Continuum’ were universal propositions.

 

3) K. Gough, E. Leach, N.K. Bose and A. Bete was busy unveiling the socio-economic base of Indian society. Many studies were done by the Anthropological Survey – In addition, many in-depth and analytical studies on different communities were encouraged which were completely free from the bias of the western theoretical model.

 

4) B, K, Roy Burman A.K. Das’ remarkable contribution, publication of new bulletins and journals, establishment of more and more research centres, especially characterized the analytical phase in the growth and development of Indian anthropology in the late 20th century.

5) 4. Evaluation Phase (1990 onwards)

6) Recently we have quietly entered a phase of evaluation. Since Western anthropology under British and American influence failed to explain the complexity of Indian society, the Indian situation required a critical appraisal and a reorientation of the discipline.

 

7) Indian scholars developed indigenous models with the intention of understanding the cultural matrix of India. The alternative methodological framework not only helped to establish a refined concept; It also aimed at ‘Indianness’ to maintain the quality of national life. In fact, Indian anthropology calls for an active, humanistic and critical approach to the subject matter to overcome the constraints of intellectual colonialism and neo-colonialism.

8) new types of data are encountered; Concepts, methods and theories are constantly shaped and reshaped. New ways of looking at new types of data have made Indian anthropology more unique than ever. Unlike western countries, there has been a close relationship between sociology and social anthropology in India from the very beginning. The sheer size and density of the Indian population has facilitated such proximity between the two disciplines. The present phase of anthropology in India has brought sociology very close; Both the disciplines examine tribal, agricultural and industrial socio-cultural systems.

 

9) Many eminent anthropologists like MN Srinivas, SC Dubey and others were found to enter the field of sociologists successfully combining the two disciplines to produce better results.

 

 

10) Methods of Anthropology E th n o g r a ph y

11) The term ethnography has come to equate to virtually any qualitative research project where the intent is to provide a detailed, in-depth description of everyday life and practice. This is sometimes referred to as a “rough description” – a term coined by anthropologist Clifford Geertz in the early 1970s on the idea of an explanatory theory of culture. The use of the term “qualitative” is to distinguish such a distinction. social science research from more “quantitative” or statistically oriented research.

12) Whereas an ethnographic approach to social research now

While not purely that of a cultural anthropologist, a more precise definition must be rooted in the disciplinary home of anthropology, that of ethnography. Thus, ethnography can be defined as both a qualitative research process or method (one conducts ethnography) and the product (the result of this process is an ethnography) that aims at cultural interpretation. Ethnographic reporting goes beyond description of events and experience. In particular, the researcher attempts to explain how these represent what we might call “webs of meaning”, the cultural constructs in which we live.

13) An ethnographic understanding is developed through a thorough exploration of multiple sources of data. Using these data sources as a foundation, the ethnographer relies on a cultural framework of analysis.

14) Long-term engagement in the field setting or location where ethnography takes place is called participant observation. It is probably the primary source of ethnographic data. The term represents the dual role of the ethnographer. To develop an understanding of what it is like to live in a setting, the researcher must become a participant in the life of the setting, while also maintaining the stance of an observer, someone who can describe the experience so that we can are call “detachment.” Ethnographers typically spend several months or even years in the places where they conduct their research and often form lasting relationships with the people.

15) Interviews provide for what may be called “targeted” data collection by asking specific but open-ended questions. There is a huge variety of interview styles. each ethnographer Brin

16) Your own unique approach to the GS process.

17) Researchers collect other sources of data depending on the specific nature of the field setting. This can take the form of representative artworks that cover the subject of interest, government reports, and features of newspaper and magazine articles. Although often not tied to the site of study, secondary academic sources are used to “locate” a specific study within an existing body of literature.

18) Most anthropologists today point to Bronisław Malinowski, author of such historical ethnographies as Argonauts of the Western Pacific (first published in 1922), as a founding father of ethnographic fieldwork, “participant- practice observation. Malinowski’s early twentieth-century ethnography was written in a voice that was removed and not fully disclosed.

 

 

19) The nature of the ethnographer and his relationship with the people studied. Since the time of Malinowski,

20) Personal details of the fieldwork are hidden in the notes and diaries.

21) Good ethnography recognizes the transformative nature of fieldwork, where as we seek answers to questions about people, we may find ourselves in the stories of others. Ethnography must be acknowledged as a reciprocal product that is born out of the interrelationship of the lives of the ethnographer and his subjects.

22) Case Study

23) Case study involves a particular method of research. Rather than using large samples and following a rigid protocol to examine a limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or phenomenon. They provide a systematic way of observing events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharper understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what may be important to look at more widely in future research.

24) A case study is a form of qualitative descriptive research that is used to observe individuals, a small group of participants, or an entire group. Researchers collect data about participants using direct observations, interviews, protocols, tests, examination of records, and collection of writing samples.

25) According to H. Odom, case study method is a technique by which an individual factor, whether an institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a group, is analyzed in its relationship to another in the group . Thus, a fairly detailed study of a person (as to what he does and has done, what he thinks he has done and has done, and what he expects to do and says he should do). Or the group is called life or case history. Bergers has used the term “the social microscope” for the case study method.

26) Case study method is a form of qualitative analysis which involves careful and complete observation of a person or situation or institution; An attempt is made to study each and every aspect of the concerned entity in minute details and then case data generalizations and conclusions are drawn.

27) Features

28) Under this system the researcher may take a single social unit or more than one unit for the purpose of his study, he may also take a situation to study comprehensively. Here an in-depth study of the selected unit is done i.e.

It is studied in fine detail. Generally, studies to trace the natural history of the entity last for a long period of time so that sufficient information is obtained to draw correct conclusions.

29) Through this method we try to understand the complex of factors that operate within a social unit as an integrated totality (complete study of social unit covering all features). The approach under this method is qualitative and not quantitative. about the case study

 

 

30) In the method, an attempt is made to know the interrelationships of the causal factors. Under this method, the pattern of the concerned unit is studied directly.

31) Case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis. It results in useful hypotheses with data that can be helpful in their testing, and thus enables generalizable knowledge to be enriched and enriched.

32) Focus Group Interview

33) Focus group research is a qualitative research method. It seeks to collect information that is outside the purview of quantitative research. The term “focus group” is often used to describe several types of group discussions. However, focus group research is a true research method. As such, it uses a fairly standard method. Focus group research involves an organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to obtain information about their views and experiences about a topic. Focus group interviewing is particularly well suited for obtaining multiple perspectives about the same topic. Benefits of focus group research include gaining insight into people’s shared understandings about everyday life and the ways in which individuals are influenced by others in a group situation. The problem arises when eaten

34) In identifying individual perspectives from the group perspective as well as in practical arrangements for conducting focus groups. The role of moderator is very important. Successfully moderating a group requires a good level of group leadership and interpersonal skills.

35) There are many definitions of a focus group in the literature, but characteristics such as organized discussion (Kitzinger 1994), group activity (Powell et al 1996), social events (Goss & Leinbach 1996) and conversation (Kitzinger 1995) identify the contribution The one who focuses. Groups form for social research.

36) Powell et al define a focus group as “a group of individuals selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the subject of research”.

 

37) Focus group is a form of group interview but it is important to differentiate between the two. Group interviewing involves interviewing several people at the same time, with an emphasis on questions and responses between the researcher and the participants. Focus groups however rely on conversations within the group based on topics supplied by the researcher.

38) Hence the key feature that distinguishes focus groups is the insights and data generated by the interactions between participants.

39) Why use focus groups and not other methods?

40) The main purpose of focus group research is to elicit the attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences, and reactions of respondents in a way that may not be possible using other methods, for example observation, one-to-one interviews, or questionnaires Survey. This attitude

 

 

41) Feelings and beliefs may be partly independent of a group or its social setting, but are more likely to emerge through the social interactions and interactions that take place in a focus group. Compared to individual interviews, which aim to elicit individual attitudes, beliefs, and feelings, focus groups capture the plurality of thoughts and emotional processes within a group context. Individual interviews are easier for the researcher to control than a focus group in which participants can take the initiative. Compared to observation, a focus group enables the researcher to obtain a large amount of information in a short amount of time. Observational methods rely on waiting for things to happen while the researcher follows an interview guide in a focus group. In this sense, focus groups are not natural but organized events. Focus groups are particularly useful when there is a power differential between participants and decision-makers or professionals, when the everyday use of language and culture of particular groups is of interest, and when one wants to know the degree of consensus on a given topic. (Morgan & Krieger 1993).

 

role of focus groups

Focus groups can be used in the preliminary or exploratory phases of a study (Kreuger 1988); during a study, perhaps to evaluate or develop a specific program of activities (Race et al 1994); or after a program has been completed, to assess its impact or generate further avenues of research.

Focus groups can help to explore or generate hypotheses (Powell & Single 1996) and develop questions or concepts for questionnaires and interview guides (Hopp et al 1995; Lankshire 1993).

can do. However they are limited in terms of their ability to generalize findings to the entire population, mainly due to the small number of people participating and the likelihood of not being a representative sample of participants.

 

 

 

Overview

(Observation)

As in the natural sciences, the importance of observation in the social sciences cannot be overstated. The method of observation is being used by the social scientist for the study of class, community, men and women, institutions. As modern instruments are being used in social research, observation method is being given an equally important place. Several methods have been discovered by which observation is becoming more reliable. Observation is a synonym of the Greek word ‘Observation’, which means to observe. According to the English dictionary, “In order to know the work-cause or mutual relationship, seeing and palming the events in their own form is called observation. Observation is such a method of collecting facts related to social reality.” In which the use of eyes rather than ears and sound is implied. Under this, events have to be seen, inspected, tested and documented in the same form as they happen. Like – observation of the life of child laborers, done with widows Observation of labor practices and observation of worker-employer relationship etc. etc. Some of the important definitions are as follows:

 

 

In the words of C. A. Moser, “observation in its strictest sense means more use of the eyes than of the ears and speech.” ,

P . V . According to Young, “Observation is employed by the eye as a method of thoughtful study in order to study collective behavior and complex social institutions as well as the individual units constituting the whole.”

 

William J. Gade and Paul K Hadr william J . Goode and Paul K. Hatt) has written, “Science begins with observation and has to ultimately return to observation to test its limited validity.” Observation is considered a fundamental method in all sciences. No scientist accepts any event or state until he himself. Don’t experience it from your own point of view.

 

In the words of P.V. Young, “Observation is a systematic and deliberate study by the eyes of natural phenomena as they occur.” It is clear from this definition – (1) Observation is a systematic and deliberate method . (2) The use of eyes is the main thing in this. (3) In this, social events are observed in their natural form. In this form it is considered a scientific method.

According to C. A. Moser, “In the strict sense, observation involves the use of eyes rather than ears and speech.” Tries to understand the events by observing himself.

It is written in the Oxford Concise Dictionary, “Observation is the exact observation and description of events, as they appear in the subject of cause-effect or mutual relations. ,

It is clear from this (1) that accurate observation and description go hand in hand in observation. (2) In this, behavior is studied in natural conditions. (3) In this, an attempt is made to know the cause-effect relationships.

 

According to J. Galtung, “Observation is the recording of all kinds of perceptible subject matter.” It is clear from this that in the process of observation all the senses of the researcher are activated. Under this, the researcher observes the incident directly and writes it up.

1. Wolf says, “Observation is the act of perceiving objects and events. Their characteristics and their concrete relations and knowing the direct consciousness of our mental experiences in relation to them.” This definition makes it clear. That through observation not only events are seen, but efforts are also made to know its characteristics and interrelationships. On the basis of the above description, it can be said that observation is such a method in which primary facts are collected thoughtfully through the eyes.

 

According to Salles, Jahoda, Deutsch and Cook, observation becomes a scientific method when the following characteristics are added to it:

 

(1) When the observation has a specific purpose.

(2) When the observation is made in a planned and systematic manner.

(3) When necessary control and restrictions have been imposed on the authenticity and reliability of observation.

(4) When the findings of observation are written in a systematic form and their co-relation is established with the general hypothesis.

 

P . V . Young has mentioned the following characteristics of scientific observation

 

(1) definite objective,

(2) Arrangement of planning and documentation,

(3) Useful for scientific testing and control.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

features of observation

(Characteristics of observation)

 

In observation, it is especially necessary to see an event in a systematic and well-thought-out form with our own eyes as it happens. It has the following main features

1. Impartiality: The observer can see his own eye.

He observes the incident with his eyes, nor does he investigate it thoroughly. His decision is not based on the judgment or sayings of others. A subtle and deep study of himself saves him from opinion.

2. Spontaneity: One of the main features of observation is that it studies events. It is done at the time when it happens. In this way observation of natural events is lost. It becomes possible.

3, Use of Senses: Human senses are used in the observation method. Eyes, ears and speech can all be used in this. But more emphasis is given especially on the use of eyes. 4. Systematic and Deliberate Study: Observation is a method of systematic and deliberate study. In this, the observer himself compiles the facts by observing the events systematically and thoughtfully. He does not depend on the things said or heard by others.

5. Collection of Primary Data: Primary data is to be obtained through observation method. The researcher himself goes to the field and conducts a direct study.

6..Minuteness: In the method of observation one does not only know how to see, but also has to do a deep and subtle study of the incident. Through careful study, he succeeds in achieving his goal, otherwise he wanders here and there.

7. To find out the Cause – Effect Relationship: One of the main features of observation is to find out the cause – effect. The observer himself establishes the relationship between the necessary causes and consequences by observing the incident.
8. Empirical Study: Observation is a method based on experience. Not based on imagination. Empirical study, whether of an institution or of a community, is very useful in social research.

 

 

 

 

 

Importance or merit of observational method

 

Observational method is the basis of all scientific investigations. Science started with observations only. Observation method has special importance in social research. This method can be derived from human behavior and social phenomenon as simple as not relying on it. It is able to reveal with this legality, no other method can do that much. This method can be understood in the dated form of values or multiplication

1. Wider Use: Observation method is used in almost all types of sciences. John Madge wrote, “All modern science is rooted in observation.” going .
2. Simplicity: Observation method is considered to be the simplest. With simple training one may be able to observe. Unlike other methods, there are not so many difficulties in its use. An ordinary person can also observe the phenomenon by using his senses. The observation of the phenomenon is the easiest by the use of human senses. , (8) Basis of Scientific Knowledge: Almost all scientists believe that observational gathering is the basis of scientific investigations. Science has started through observation only. Along with this, observation is also needed to test the veracity of theories. Any subject (discipline) which has to get the status of science, emphasizes the use of maximum observation. It is clear from the above description that observation method is considered to be a very important method of social research. A . Moser wrote, “Observation can . . . be a method of a very high order of scientific inquiry.”

 

3. Direct Method of Study: In the observation method, the researcher himself can take stock of the situation by observing the events. Under this, the researcher does not have to remain dependent on the experiences and answers of the informant. Major says that the daily activities of the people Observation is capable of providing sociologists with the kind of facts that they can hardly reliably obtain by any other means. In this form, observation is most useful.
4. Study of Natural Behaviour: It is possible to study human behavior in its natural state through the method of observation, which cannot be done by any other method. The reality which cannot be attained even through life history and deep interviews. that comes through observation.
5. Intensive Study: Observation method helps in the explanation of the phenomenon with depth. The main reason for this is that the investigator himself remains present at the scene of the incident. At the same time, he does not only see the happenings, but also tries to understand the relations found between those events, in such a situation, deep study through observation becomes natural.
6. Accuracy and Reliability: Information collected by observation method is more accurate and reliable than other methods. In other methods the researcher has to depend on the informant. The account of the incident heard may be wrong. But the incident which has been seen and tested by the observer himself, has the possibility of being wrong.

The feeling is not equal. This is the reason that the information obtained by this method is more accurate and reliable.

7. Helpful in the Formation of Hypothesis: Many hypotheses of science have been born through the observations of events. Formulation of hypotheses is the first step in the scientific process. Observation method has special importance in this construction work. This is because the experience of the researcher increases with repeated observations. On the basis of this experience, it is possible to make hypotheses.

 

 

 

Limitations or Defects of Observational Method

(Limitations or Demerits of Observation Method)

Observation method has a special importance in social research, yet this method has some limitations of its own. This method becomes flawed. Mentioning its limitations, P.V. Young has written. “All events do not provide independent opportunities for observation. All events that can be observed do not occur at the time when the observer is present, it is not possible to study all events at the expense of observational methods.” Thus the method of observation cannot be used in every situation. Its major defects or limitations can be understood as follows.

1. Unsuitable for intangible events: Some events are intangible which cannot be observed. For example, the thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and values of individuals are such subjects which are not possible to be seen. Therefore, observation method proves inappropriate in the study of such problems.
2. Possibility of opinion: In the study by observation method, the researcher is independent. The point of view of each person can be different in seeing the facts and events. The culture a person grows up in has an impact on his outlook. Therefore, the personal opinion of the researcher can affect the observed fact which is harmful for scientific research.
3. Artificiality in Behaviour: It is generally found that the persons who are being observed, whenever they realize it, they deliberately try to exhibit artificial behaviour. In such a situation, it becomes difficult to study their real and natural behavior through observation.
4. Illusive Observation: Observation depends on the use of eyes. But the description of the phenomenon seen by the eyes can be misleading. Most of the observation is done selectively. So an event that is important to one person may not be of any importance to another. Thus misleading observation is the defect of observational method.
5. Time consuming and expensive method: The speed of study is slow in the observation method. Reliable inspection is not possible in haste. This takes a lot of time to study. Because of the time taken, the expenses are also high. Thus observation method has its own limitations or defects. Despite this, it is the initial and basic method of all types of research studies. Most of the scientific knowledge has been accumulated through this method. If the researcher uses this method with understanding and honesty, then its defects can be avoided.
6. Observation is not allowed: Some incidents are such that the researcher is not allowed to observe them. For example, permission to observe the relationship between husband and wife in family life may not be given to the researcher. Thus it is difficult to study such phenomena by observation method.
7. Uncertainty of events: There are some events which are uncertain. Study of such incidents is not possible by observational method. For example, the researcher wants to study the fighting in the college. It is possible that when the researcher is present in the college, the incident does not happen and when the researcher is not there, the incident happens.
8. Study of past events is not possible: Through observation method, the researcher studies what he sees directly. That’s why the events that have happened or the situations that have arisen in the past cannot be studied by the method of observation.

 

types of observation method

(Types of Observation Method)

The nature of observable social phenomena is diverse and complex. As a result, many forms of observation have been used in different situations in social research. Therefore, many types of observation are told. For the convenience of study, it can be understood as follows

 

(1) Uncontrolled Observation,

(2) Controlled Observation,

(3) Participant Observation,

(4) Non-Participant Observation,

(5) Quasi-Participant Observation

(6) Collective Observation.

 

 

(1) Controlled Observation: Observer and observed in controlled observation. The social event that takes place is controlled. Various types of tools are used to control the observer, such as detailed planning of observation, use of schedule and questionnaire, use of map, use of field notes, diaries, photographs, camera and tape recorder etc. The conditions or factors that must be controlled in order to control a social phenomenon

Or goes which are to be observed. In this way, such an artificial environment is created in which the conditions or components remain the same.

(2) Uncontrolled Observation: Natural and real life events are carefully studied in uncontrolled observation. Under this, efforts are made to see the events in the form in which they are happening. There is neither control over the observer nor over the event or situation. It has three forms –

(1) Participant observation,

(II) Non-participant observation and

(III) Semi-participant observation.

(1) Participant Observation: It was first used by Lindemann in 1924. For the study through participant observation, the observer becomes a member of the group which is to be studied. Participates in the activities of the group and observes. There are two schools of thought regarding participation. First, according to American social scientists, keep your identity a secret from the observer. Second, according to Indian social scientists, one should not keep his introduction and study purpose a secret.

(II) Non-Participant Observation: In non-participant observation, the observer neither becomes a temporary member of the community or group nor becomes a participant in its activities, observes the events like a neutral person and does not reach its depth. tries to

(III) Quasi-Participant Observation: Quasi-participant observation is a combined form of participant and non-participant observation. In this type of observation, the observer participates in some of the activities of the community or group being studied and mostly observes it neutrally without participating.

(3) Mass Observation: When the observation work is done collectively by many persons, then it is called mass observation. Under collective observation, there are many experts related to different subjects of an event. These experts submit their observed facts to a central person. The conclusion is drawn on the basis of those collected facts by that central person.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Observational methods have a long tradition in organizational research, and offer the promise of a ‘coarse description’ (Geertz, 1973) of what people ‘really’ do as opposed to what they say [action science]. We do. Although very few researchers support a theoretical notion that observation allows them to ‘see (and tell) it how it is’, there is a temptation to believe that observational research is based on real-world behaviours, events and observations. provides an unauthenticated window on the Having said that, the thoughtful and judicious use of observational methods provides one of the most effective methods for understanding what is happening in natural settings. Based on the degree of participation by the observer, observation can be classified as participant and non-participant.

Observational methods come in many forms, of which participant observation (q.v.) [field research] is perhaps the most widely known. Participant observation has traditionally been associated with anthropology and particularly with the Chicago School of Sociology.

 

 

Participant observation is a type of data collection method commonly used in qualitative research paradigms. It is a widely used method in many disciplines, especially cultural anthropology. Its purpose is to achieve close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious, occupational, subcultural group, or a particular community). practice through

An intense involvement with people in their cultural environment, typically over an extended period of time. The method originated in the urban research of social anthropologists, notably Bronisław Malinowski in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the United States, and later the Chicago School of Sociology.

Participant observation was widely used in the late nineteenth century by Frank Hamilton Cushing in his study of the Zuni Indians, followed by people such as Bronislaw Malinowski, EE Evans-Pritchard, and Margaret Mead in their studies of non-Western societies. Was. First half of the twentieth century. It emerged as the dominant approach to ethnographic research by anthropologists and relied on the cultivation of personal relationships with local informants as a way of learning about a culture, which involved observing and participating in the social life of a group.

 

By living with the cultures they studied, the researchers were able to produce first-hand accounts of their lives and gain novel insights. This same method of study has also been applied to groups within Western society, and is particularly successful in the study of subcultures or groups sharing a strong sense of identity, where simply participating does not allow the observer to actually live. Can gain access to those being studied.

Such research includes well-defined, though variable, methods: informal interviewing, direct observation, participation in the life of the group, group discussion, analysis of individual documents produced within the group, self-analysis, motion taken

results from methods or online, and life-history. Although this method is generally described as qualitative research, it can (and often does) include quantitative dimensions. In participant observation, a researcher’s discipline-based interests and commitments shape what phenomena they observe. important and relevant to the research investigation. According to Howell (1972), the four stages that most participant observation research studies go through are

• making connections or getting to know people,
• Immerse yourself in the field,
• recording data and observation,
• and consolidate the collected information

Type of participant observation

Participant observation isn’t just showing up at a site and writing things down. In contrast, participant observation is a complex method consisting of several components. After deciding to conduct participant observation to collect data, a researcher or individual must first decide what type of participant observer he or she will be. Spradley offers five different types of participant observation

 

 

 

participant observation type

Type of participant observation Level of participation

No contact with non-participating population or study area

Passive participation The researcher is only in the role of an observer

Moderate Participatory Researcher maintains a balance between “insider” and “outsider” roles

Active participation The researcher becomes a member of the group by fully adopting the skills and customs for a full understanding

Full participation The researcher is fully integrated into the population already studied (i.e. he is already a member of the particular population studied).

 

 

non-participant observation

Non-participant, or direct, observation is where data is collected by observing behavior without interacting with participants. In this type of observation, the researcher does not actually participate in the activities of the group being studied. He will be present in the group simply to note down the behavior of the respondents. The researcher does not make any attempt to influence or create a relationship between himself and the group.

Although this method implies non-participation, it should not be understood as a complete or total lack of participation. In fact, there may be no non-participant observation of a group.

The advantage of this method is that the researcher can maintain a purely unbiased position and be free from factionalism. He can adopt a scientific approach and look at events from that point of view. But the biggest problem with this method is that the group members (i.e. those under observation) may be suspicious of the presence of the researcher and therefore may not exhibit their natural behaviour. Furthermore, under non-participatory observation, the observer can observe only those activities that take place in front of him. Unless he has actively participated with the group, he fails to understand them in a proper sequence.

Limitations of any participant observation

• Recorded observations about a group of people or event will never be a complete description.
• As mentioned earlier, this is due to the selective nature of any type of recordable data process: it is inevitably influenced by the researchers’ personal beliefs about what is relevant and important.
• It also plays

analysis of the collected data; The researcher’s worldview certainly influences how he or she interprets and evaluates the data.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Culture And Society

 

 

Generally, we keep using the word culture continuously in our day-to-day life. Also, the word culture is used in different meanings. For example, this does not happen in our culture and it is accepted in the western culture. Sociology as a science has a clear meaning of any concept which reflects scientific understanding. Therefore, the meaning of culture as a sociological concept is “learned behavior”. That is, whatever a person learns from childhood till now, for example, the way of eating, the way of talking, knowledge of language, writing and reading and other abilities, this is culture.

 

Which human behavior is culture? There are many sides to human behavior

(a) Biological behavior like – silent, sleeping, walking, running.

(b) Psychological behavior like thinking, fearing, laughing etc.

(C) Social behavior like- Greeting, reading-writing, talking etc.

 

Under culture, we do not take biological behavior or psychological behavior. Culture is that aspect of human behavior that a person learns as a member of society, such as wearing clothes, religion, knowledge, etc. An important difference between human and animal society is that human could create culture while animal society lacks it.

Do you know how humans were able to create culture?

Leslie A. White has mentioned five special abilities in human beings, which man has got from nature and as a result of which he can create culture:

The first feature is – the ability of a human to stand, due to which the person does useful work with both hands.

The second is the texture of man’s hands, as a result of which he

Can freely rotate in any direction and create different types of objects through it.

Third – Human’s sharp vision, due to which he is able to observe and observe nature and events and makes various discoveries and inventions.

Fourth – developed brain, with the help of which man can think better than other creatures. It is because of this brain that he presents logic and is able to establish cause-effect relationship.

Fifth – Ability to create symbols. Through these symbols, a person is able to transfer his knowledge and experiences from one generation to another. The development of language became possible only through symbols and people were able to exchange their knowledge and ideas. Thus it is clear that symbols have a great contribution in the creation, development, change and expansion of culture.

 

 

Do you know ?

 

The first mention of culture in the book Primitive Culture, published in 1871 by the famous anthropologist Edward Benart Tylor (1832-1917). Tylor is mainly known for his definition of culture, according to which, “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and all other capacities and habits acquired by man as a society.” Tyler has used culture in a broad sense. According to him, being a social animal, whatever a person possesses and learns is culture. Only non-material elements are included in this definition.

 

Meaning and definition of culture

The definition of culture given by Robert Beersteed (The Social Order) is that “Culture is that whole complex which includes all those things which we think, act and possess as members of society”. In the definition, both the physical and non-material aspects of culture have been included.

In the words of Harshkovits (Man and His Work) “Culture is the man-made part of the environment. It is clear from this definition that the environment has two parts, first – natural and second – social. Social environment includes all material and non-material things. For example, chair, table, pen, register, religion, education, knowledge, morality etc. Harshkovits has called this social environment, which is created by humans, as culture.

 

According to Bogardus, “Culture is the name of all the ways of thinking and acting of a group.” On this, you should note that, like Beerstead, Bogardus has emphasized both its material and non-material aspects.

 

Malinowski – Culture is the creation of man and a means by which he achieves his goals. You say that “culture is a total way of life which fulfills the physical, mental and other needs of a person.”

Redfield defined culture as “the lifestyle of the members of any society”.

It is clear from looking at the appropriate definitions that various sociologists and anthropologists have given the definition of culture on the basis of their respective viewpoints. In fact, culture is the way of life of the society and in this form it is passed on from generation to generation after necessary changes and modifications. All types of thought and behavior come under culture. Therefore, it is clear that in culture that complex totality of material and non-material elements, which a person receives as a member of society and through which he passes his life.

 

 

Nature or Characteristics of Culture

 

After knowing the views of various sociologists regarding culture, some of its characteristics become clear, which is also helpful in knowing and understanding its nature. Some of the key features are being discussed here

 

1. Culture is learned behavior – Culture is a learned behavior. It is not acquired by the individual through inheritance from his ancestors, but is learned through the process of socialization in the society. This learning goes on continuously till life i.e. from birth to death. You need to know that culture is learned behavior, but not all learned behavior can be called culture. The behavior learned by animals cannot be called culture, because whatever animals learn, they cannot teach it to any other animal. Those habits and ways of behavior come under culture, which are learned by all the members of the society in general. In this context, Lundberg has said that, “Culture is not related to a person’s innate tendencies or zoological heritage, but it is based on social learning and experiences.”

 

1. Culture is social – The quality of sociality is found in culture. The whole society and social relations are represented under culture. Therefore it can be said that the behavior learned by any one or two-four persons cannot be called culture. any behavior unless it is learned by the majority of the individuals in the society

Till then it cannot be called culture. Culture represents the entire way of life of a society. This is the reason why every member of the society adopts the culture. Culture is also social in the sense that it is not the property of any particular person or two or four persons. It is for every member of the society. Hence its expansion is wide and social.

 

III. Culture is Transmissive – It is because of this quality of culture that when culture passes from one generation to another, the experiences and understandings of generations get added to it. Due to this, there is a slight change and modification in the culture. Due to this quality of culture, man invents new things on the basis of his previous knowledge and experience. You have to understand that – even animals have the ability to learn something. But they are unable to teach what they have learned to their children and other animals. This is the reason that despite having the ability to learn a lot, culture has not developed in them. Man develops and expands his culture very easily through language and symbols and also transfers it from one generation to another. This also maintains the continuity of the culture.

 

1. Culture is made by man (Culture is Man-Made) – Culture refers to all those elements, which have been created by man himself. For example, our religion, beliefs, knowledge, ethics, ways of behaving and means of various needs i.e. chair, table etc. have been created by man. In this way all this culture Harshkavits says that “culture is the man-made part of the environment”.

Culture Satisfies Human Needs – Culture has the quality of satisfying human needs. Even the smallest unit of culture directly or indirectly fulfills or helps to fulfill human needs. Sometimes a unit of culture may appear to be redundant or ineffective on the outside, but it has an important place in the overall picture.

 

Thoughts of Malinowski:- Famous anthropologist Malinowski states that the existence of even the smallest element of culture depends on its ability to satisfy needs. When any element of culture does not have the quality to fulfill the need, then its existence also ends. For example, the elements of culture that were there in ancient times were destroyed because they were unable to fulfill the requirement, in this Sati Pratha can be seen as an example. Similarly, a unit in a system may sometimes appear to be very small but that unit is also very important for the system. Thus, no element of culture is dysfunctional but rather the fulfillment of a human need in any form. Does i

.vi Every society has its own distinctive culture (Culture is Distinctive in every Society) – Every society has a distinctive culture. We know that any society is meant for a specific geographical and natural environment. According to this, the social environment and culture is created. For example, the geographical environment of the people living on the mountains is different from the geographical environment of the people of the plains. Similarly, the people living in these two places have different needs. Like – food, way of living, dance, singing, religion etc. Therefore, the culture of both develops according to the need in relation to the geographical environment. When there are changes in the behavior and needs of the society, then there is a change in the culture. The rate and direction of change in the behavior of people in different societies is different. Because of which there is variation in the rate and direction of change in culture.

 

vii. Culture has the quality of adaptation (Culture has Adoptive Quality) – An important feature of culture is that it gets adapted to the needs over time. Culture is according to the environment and situation of the society. When the environment and circumstances change, the culture also molds itself accordingly. If this specialty and quality is not there, then the existence of culture will not remain. Due to change in culture according to time and situation, the usefulness of uraki does not end. The main objective and function of every culture is to fulfill the physical, mental and social needs of the village. Culture has to be molded according to these needs. Do you know – the needs of people have been different in every era. New needs have been born in place of old needs and they also change from time to time. Along with these, the quality of adaptation is in the culture. This is the reason why culture changes, but culture changes very slowly.

 

viii. Culture is Super-Organic – Man created culture by using his mental and physical abilities, which is above organic. A person develops by living in a culture and then a human creates a culture which is above the human. The basis of all human abilities is organic,

But this culture goes above Aghi-Savayavi. In this sense, culture has been called super-organic.

 

1. Culture is super-individual – both the creation and continuity of culture do not depend on any particular person. Therefore it is super-individual. Culture is not created by any particular person, but culture is created by the whole group. Each cultural entity has a history of its own, which is beyond any individual. Culture is the result of social invention, but this invention is not the brainchild of any one person. Thus no one person can be the creator of the whole culture. The ability to change and modify it is not in the control of any particular person. Thus culture is hyper-personal.

x There is balance and organization in culture (Culture has The Integrative) – There are many elements and sections within the culture, but they are not separate from each other, rather interrelationship and interdependence are found in them. Of culture. Each unit does not work in isolation from each other, but all work together. This type of balance and organization creates a cultural framework. Under this structure, each unit has a certain position and function, but all of them are based and related to each other. In any one part or unit of culture. If there is a change, the other party or other entity is also affected.

 

1. Culture is Ideal for the Group – The culture of each group is ideal for that group. This type of belief is found in all societies. All people consider their own culture as ideal and consider their culture higher than other culture. Culture is also ideal because its behavior pattern is not of a particular person but of the whole group.

 

You need to understand that – according to Emile Durkheim, culture is a symbol of collective-consciousness, that is, it does not represent a particular person but a group, so it is considered ideal, that is why it is ignored against collective consciousness. And that person is condemned but those who respect it are praised.

 

types of culture

 

Ogerbon and Nimkoff have discussed two types of culture –

 

Material culture and non-material culture. 1. material culture

 

-1. All those material and tangible things are included under material culture, which have been created for humans, and which we can see and touch. The number of material culture is more in modern society than in primitive society, Prof. Beerstead has tried to make it more clear by dividing all the elements of material culture into 3 main categories. Machines 1. Equipment iii. Utensils iv. Buildings v. Roads vi. Bridge vii. Craft articles viiiArtistic articles ix. Clothing x. Vehicles xi Furniture xii. Foodstuffs xiii Medicines etc.

 

The characteristics of physical culture are as follows

1. Material culture is tangible.

2 . It keeps on increasing continuously.

3. Physical culture can be measured.
4. Changes happen quickly in the original culture.
5. Its usefulness and benefits can be evaluated.
6. It cannot be accepted without making changes in material culture. That is, there is no difference in its form in taking it from one place to another and adopting it. For example motor vehicle, dress and cloth etc.

 

Non-material culture – All those non-material and intangible things are included under non-material culture, which do not have any size, shape and color etc. Non-material culture is transferred from one generation to another through the process of socialization and learning. In this way we can say that non-material culture refers to that part of culture.

107 is in favor, which does not have any concrete form, but controls, regulates and influences human behavior through thoughts and beliefs. Pro . Bearstead called ideas and ideal rules as the most important under non-material culture and said that ideas are the main part of non-material culture. There can be a certain number of views, yet Prof. Beerstead has presented some sets of ideas Scientific truth Religious belief Mythology iv. Anecdotal literature vi Superstition vii. Sutras viii proverbs etc. All these ideas are part of non-material culture. Ideal rules are not related to thinking, but to the way of behaving. That is, those rules or methods of behavior which the culture considers as its ideal, are called ideal rules. Pro . Beerstead has divided all ideal rules into 14 parts. Law 2. Act 3. Rule 4. Regulation 5. Practices 6, Generalities 7. Ethos 8. Prohibition 9. Fashion 10. Sanskar 11. Karma-Kand 12. Rituals 13. Custom 14. virtue .

 

The characteristics of non-material culture are as follows

1. Non-material culture is intangible.

2 . It is difficult to measure it.

3. Non-material culture is complex.
4. Evaluating its usefulness and benefits is a difficult task.

Change in non-material culture is very slow.

6. When non-material culture is accepted from one place to another, then there is a slight change in its form.
7. Non-material culture is related to the spiritual and inner life of man.

 

difference between material and non-material culture

 

Culture is created only by the combination of material and non-material aspects, but there are some differences between the two, which are as follows

1. Material culture is also called civilization, while non-material culture is simply called culture.

2 . Material culture is tangible, while non-material culture is intangible. For example, the train and the thought and mind of the scientist, which led to the invention of the train. Here the train is the material culture, while the scientist’s idea is the non-material culture.

3. It is easier to imbibe material culture than non-material one. It can be accepted anywhere, but it is not easy to accept non-material culture. Others face difficulties in accepting. Very easily we are not able to accept the ideals and values of other places.
4. Non-material culture changes at a slower rate than material culture. Like – motor, watch etc change, but the beliefs of man do not change soon. ,
5. Since material culture is tangible, it is easy to measure it, but due to non-material culture being immortal, there are difficulties in its measurement. Its measurement is not possible.

6 Growth in material culture happens at a rapid pace, while growth in non-material culture happens at a very slow pace. For example, different types of things come to the fore due to new discoveries and inventions in the society, but the thoughts of a person are found to be years old.

7. The growth and accumulation of non-material culture cannot be explained. But there is growth and accumulation in material culture and it can also be measured.
8. The benefits and usefulness of material culture can be measured and told, but the usefulness and benefits of non-material culture cannot be evaluated. It can only be experienced.
9. Material culture is related to the physical and material life of the person, while non-material culture is related to the spiritual and inner life of the human being.
10. Material culture is simple, while the form of non-material culture is complex. ,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Structure of Culture

 

1. Cultural Traits

2 . Culture Complex

3. Culture Pattern or Culture Configuration

 

1. Cultural elements – Cultural elements are the smallest units or single elements of culture. Culture is formed by combining these units. Culture is formed by combining these units. Hershkovits has called the cultural element the smallest identifiable unit within a particular culture. Kroeber called it “the least defining element of culture”. For example – handshake, touching feet, taking off one’s headgear, kissing cheeks, providing accommodation to women, saluting the flag, wearing white sari during mourning, vegetarian food. Eating, walking barefoot, sprinkling water on idols. It has three main characteristics i. Every cultural element has a history of its origin, whether that history is small or big. ii. Cultural element is not static. Mobility is its characteristic. iii.Cultural elements have the nature of assimilation.They mix together like a bouquet of flowers.

 

2 . Cultural complexes – are made up of cultural elements. When some or many elements together fulfill human needs. Thus, bowing down in front of the idol, sprinkling holy water on it, placing some food in its mouth, folding hands, taking prasad from the priest and singing aarti etc. all these elements together form a religious cultural complex. Piddington called cultural complex as functional association of cultural elements.

 

3. Cultural Pattern – When cultural elements and packages together become related to each other in functional roles, then a cultural pattern is born from them. Culture – The study of the pattern gives knowledge of the main characteristics of a culture. For example – Gandhism, spiritualism, caste-system, joint family, ruralism are cultural complexes of Indian culture which introduce the characteristics of Indian culture.

 

Clark Wissler has mentioned 9 basic cultural elements that give rise to culture-pattern

1. speech and language

2 . Physical Elements – 1 Food Habits Habitat iii Transport iv . Utensils etc. v. Arms viBusiness and Industry

3. art
4. mythology and scientific knowledge
5. religious ceremonies
6. family and social species
7. property
8. Government
9. war .

 

Kimble Young has included 13 elements of culture in universal patterns

1. Models of Movement: Sign and Language

2 . Things and riots for the welfare of humans

3. quantity and mode of transport

4, Exchange of goods and services – trade commerce

5. Types of Property – Real and Personal
6. Sexual and family patterns – marriage and divorce, types of kinship relations, succession, guardianship.
7. Social Control and Governing Institutions – Ethos Public Opinion Law

war

8. Artistic expression: building arts, painting, culture
9. leisure time activity
10. religious and magical ideas
11. mythology and philosophy
12. science
13. The cultural structure of foundational interaction processes.

 

 

 

 

Functions Of Culture

 

1. for person

for 2 groups

 

1. for person

 

Culture makes man human.

1. Solving complex situations.

iiiSatisfaction of human needs

1. personality building

V: Provides values and ideals to human beings.

vi determines the habits of human beings.

vii. determines morality.

viii Brings uniformity in practices.

ix Increases experience and efficiency.

1. Provides security to the individual.
2. solves problems.

xii. Contributes to socialization.

xiii Determines status and role.

xiv. instrumental in social control

 

, for 2 groups

 

It keeps social relations stable.

1. Broadens the outlook of the individual.

iii Creates new needs.

 

 

, Phase of Culture

 

Dr. Dube has discussed six stages of culture.

1. early stone age

2 . paleolithic age

3. neolithic age
4. copper age
5. bronze age
6. iron Age

 

Normative Bases of Culture

 

Emile Durkhim said in relation to the need for regulatory bases to maintain the unity and stability of the society. W. G. Sumner stressed the need for regulatory bases for the effective functioning of society. When we talk about regulatory bases of culture, we are talking about all those abstract forms that control social behavior in one way or the other. You guide and influence. Example – rules – values, customs, conventions, laws, customs etc. Let’s do

 

Social Sanction There are two types of social discipline

1. Positive Sanction

2 . Negative Sanction: Positive discipline is that which makes an action expected and the doing of which increases social respect. For example, reaching office on time is a good thing and those who do so are considered good. Negative discipline, doing such work which brings down reputation, is punished. For example, raising hands on women in India is considered bad, and brings down prestige.

 

 

 

 

Cultural Lag

 

 

This concept was discussed by W. F. Ogbum in his book ‘Social Change’ in 1925. According to Agibern, culture can be broadly divided into two parts.

1. physical and

These two parts of material culture do not change at the same rate. For some reason a part moves forward. The other one is left behind. As a result, a situation of cultural delay arises. Due to this diseases arise in the society. As soon as the left behind part is brought forward, there is a change in the society. Thus, according to Ogvern, Sanskrit. Logical delay is a mantra in the hands of sociologists by which society changes. All the examples given by them make it clear that material culture moves ahead and non-material remains behind. He was criticized a lot for this. Accepting these criticisms, in 1957, in his book ‘On Social and Culture Change’, he presented it in the form of a principle, defining cultural delay. According to them – a culture lag occurs when end the two parts which are co – related or change before or in greater degree than the other part does their by causing less adjustment between the part then exist its previously. It is clear from this definition that following conditions are necessary for cultural delay. Any two variables whether both physical or one physical one non-physical. II. There must be correlation between the two variables. III. Adaptation between the two variables is necessary at a particular point in time. IV. For some reason, one moves forward and the other back. As a result, there should be delay in both.

 

There are four factors causing cultural lag

1. conservatism

2 . allegiance to the past

3. fear of new ideas
4. Vested interests

 

Criticizing this, Mackiwar and Page have said that Technological Lag should be used instead of Cultural Lag. Culture Lag is unimportant in today’s sociology because it only talks about two variables whereas today in any science there is talk of Multiple of factors.

 

Culture Change – The question arises why culture changes. Sumner has given three reasons for this

1. 100% transfer of culture is impossible. 2 . Change in external conditions 3. Attempt to adapt

 

Culture Contact – When two different cultures come in contact with each other, it is called cultural contact. Sanskritization due to cultural contact or on –

 

The process of acculturation begins. Accultraltion (Para-Sanskritisation) – According to Harshkavitsa, “When the elements of two cultures intermingle – meet. It is a two-way process (Two Way Process) like – Indian Muslims and Hindus have adopted each other’s elements.”

 

Cultural Relativism (Cultural Relativism) – Harshkovitas has mentioned it

, Cultural relativism means the coexistence of different cultures. We can express cultural relativism by the example of greeting. In India, people join hands to greet, in Western societies they shake hands and take off their hats, in Japan the body is bowed, and in Africa, the Maasai tribe spit on each other. Every human’s experiences, decisions and behavior are according to their culture, this is called cultural relativism. Therefore, Harshkovitas says that no culture should be compared on the basis of values of other culture, rather each culture should be evaluated relative to its own culture.

 

Ethnocentricism (Self-Culture Centricity) – It was discussed by American sociologist W. G. Sumner did it. When people of one culture consider their culture as superior and evaluate all other cultures on the same basis, it is called Ethnocentrism.

Discussing Temperocentricism Bierstedt said that the relation of the past of each aspect is considered more important.

 

TransCulturation (Para-Culturation) The process in which two or more cultures exchange themselves. It is called Trans-Culturation.

 

Cultural Pluralism Cultural Pluralism refers to a society where many people live together. Everyone respected each other, no one considered anyone inferior. Indian culture for example.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Civilization

 

Generally, people use the word “civilization” in the sense of culture, that is, in common parlance, both of them are understood in the same sense. Under civilization, we include those material things through which we fulfill our needs. For example house, table, pen which can be seen and touched. It is also called material culture. Why is the Harappan civilization called a civilization?

 

The English word “Civilization” is derived from the Latin language Civitas and Civis, which means urban and urban group. Such groups are educated, well-mannered and indicative of equality. The behavior of people in a civilized society is complex. Their language develops and differentiation and specialization are found in many works. Many scholars have given the definition of civilization. The definitions given by some sociologists are being mentioned.

 

While giving the definition of civilization, Ogburn and Nimkoff said that civilization is said to be the stage after semi-organic culture.

 

According to Green, “a culture becomes a civilization when it has a written language, science, philosophy, highly specialized division of labor, complex technology, and a political system.”

MacIver and Page have defined civilization differently. By civilization, we mean the entire system and organization that man has created in an effort to control the conditions of his life. ‘ MacIver has included in his definition social organization as well as material equipments that satisfy human needs. For example, there are typewriters, telephones, presses, motors, etc., which are used as means to achieve human objectives.

 

 

 

 

 

Characteristics Of Society

 

Like culture, civilization also has some main characteristics,

1 Material form – Material things are included under civilization. Civilization is tangible from the point of view of the material side. That means we can see and touch the world. These material things are also created by human beings. For example, table, chair etc. ,

 

All material things are not included under utilitarian civilization. It includes all those things which are important from the point of view of utility. The usefulness of three things ends, people leave them. That is, civilization provides happiness and satisfaction to human beings.

 

3. Civilization is the means. , , Civilization is a means because those things are included under it. By whom man fulfills his objectives. It is such a useful object by which man fulfills his objectives. As we travel easily from one place to another by car.

 

4 Transmutability – Changes in civilization happen at a very rapid pace, along with the change in human needs and interests, their husband’s resources also change. This is the reason why there is always change in civilization.

 

5 Fixed direction – The development of civilization takes place towards a certain direction. Its development is always upward. The pace of development of civilization never turns back. There is continuous progress in civilization.

 

6. Measurement possible – It is possible to measure the things that come under civilization.
7. Receptivity – The quality of receptivity is found in civilization. That is, any person can accept civilization and can benefit from it. A thing may be manufactured or invented in any corner of the world, but people in every field can easily accept it and benefit from it.

 

8. Optionality – It is not mandatory to adopt all the things that come under civilization. It depends on the desire and interest of the person whether he will adopt that thing or not. For example, a person can travel by motor vehicle, train, bus or even on foot. this particular person

depends on the will of In this way it is clear that civilization is optional rather than compulsory.

 

 

 

 

Difference Between Civilization And Culture

 

 

People often use the words civilization and culture in the same sense, but there is a difference between civilization and culture. Civilization is the means while culture is the end. Some common things are also found in civilization and culture. There is a connection between civilization and culture. Civilization prepares the environment for culture and culture is also propagated through civilization only. Culture gives direction to civilization. It is through civilization that culture is transferred from one society to another and from one generation to another. Civilization and culture both influence each other and also influence each other. Both were created and developed to meet the needs of human beings. There is such a close relationship between them that it is difficult to separate them from each other. Despite this, there is a difference between civilization and culture. MacIver and Page have distinguished between civilization and culture. The differences given by them are as follows

 

1. Measurement of civilization is possible, but not of culture – civilization can be measured. Since it is related to the utility of material things, it can be called good-bad, high-low, useful-unusable on the basis of utility. This is not the case with culture. It is not possible to measure culture. It cannot be described as comparatively good-bad, high-low, useful-unusable. People of every group describe their culture as the best. Every culture is the product of the time and circumstances of the society. Hence the question of its valuation does not arise. For example, let us look at new techniques. What is present today is better than the old things and in the coming times even more advanced technology will be present in front of us. We cannot do this kind of comparison with culture. The culture of two places and two eras cannot be said to be superior to each other. telling . Every culture is not said to be useful or useless. measure of culture

 

2 . Society always moves forward, but not culture – there is continuous progress in society. It never goes backwards. MacIver said that civilization does not move forward only, but its progress is only in one direction. Today, new discoveries and inventions are happening all the time, due to which advanced things are available to us in comparison to old things. As a result, there is progress in civilization. There is progress in civilization. Every first step of civilization, every new invention, every new discovery, every new thing is better than the previous step, previous invention, previous discovery, previous thing. But this is not possible with culture. It can never be said with certainty that the poets, novelists, dramatists, etc., change at a faster rate today than in the past. Its direction is also not certain. Today’s people are better than novelists, dramatists, etc. in culture

 

3. Civilization moves forward without effort, not culture – Vishish Prayal’s Sanahahat for the development and progress of civilization, it moves forward very easily and alertly. When there is any new thing, then everyone uses that thing. It is not necessary that we keep full pan in his relation and contribute fully in his invention. That means they can be consumed even without it. Standard Vastua is used without any change in attitudes, interests and thoughts, but for the spread of Eta Bara Naha Ha culture along with the culture, a change in mindset is also required. For example, if a person wants to change his religion, then he has to be mentally prepared for that, but there is no need to think specially for using it. Civilization can be inherited, but not culture. Thus it is clear that the transfer of civilization is of culture. Simple in comparison.

 

4. Civilization can be adopted without any change or loss, but not culture – the elements or things of civilization can be adopted as they are. There is no need for any change in it. When this one thing is invented, people from different places accept it. A physical object can be moved from one place to another without any change in it. For example, when the tractor was invented, it was taken to every village. For this, there was no need for any change in it. But this is not the case with culture. When the elements of culture are accepted from one place to another, there is a slight change in it. Some of its qualities become secondary, while some qualities are added. This is the reason why even after converting religion, people are not able to bring about a complete change in their old beliefs, thoughts and attitudes. Some influence of the previous religion remains. Even after doing Some of his qualities village from one place to another

 

5. Civilization is external, while culture is internal – material things come under civilization. Material things are related to external life, external comforts and facilities. For example, electric fan, television, motor vehicle, etc. All these things give people external comfort and convenience.

But culture is related to the inner life of a person. Like – knowledge, faith, religion, art etc. A person gets mental satisfaction from all these things, thus it is clear that civilization is external, but culture is related to internal life. That is, only physical happiness is obtained from civilization, while culture gives mental happiness.

 

6. Society is tangible, while culture is intangible – civilization is related to material things. Material things are tangible. They can be seen and touched. Almost all people can benefit equally from this, but culture is not related to material things but to non-material things. They can be felt, but they cannot be seen or touched. In this sense, culture is intangible. Civilization refers to the material side of culture. In this sense civilization is tangible. Like – – chair, house, fan, etc. The intangible side of culture is called non-material culture. Like – knowledge, faith, art etc.

 

7. Civilization is the means while culture is the end – Civilization is a means by which we reach our goals and objectives. Culture is an end in itself. Religion, art, literature, morality etc. are the elements of culture. To achieve these, material things such as religious books, paintings, music, dance-instruments, etc. are required. In this way civilization is the means and culture is the end.

 

culture and personality

 

There is a close relationship between culture and personality. The factors that are believed to contribute to the formation of a cultured personality. Among them, the place of culture is the main relationship. Culture gives a certain direction to personality. Personality is considered to be insane. The place of culture is important among them. Culture plays a very important role in the development of personality. It pays to know how these two are related. To know the relationship between these two, it is necessary to know what is culture and personality? What is culture, it has been discussed earlier. So what is a house, it has been discussed earlier. So there is no need to repeat it here. What is personality is being discussed below

 

 

the personality

 

 

In the language of ordinary speaking people, the meaning of personality is not just the external qualities of a human being, which is evident from its physical structure. Earlier the study of personality was only in psychology, but now it has become a topic of discussion in anthropology as well. There have been many important studies in the field of anthropology, which show the important role of culture in the formation of personality. The word personality is the Hindi adaptation of English ‘Personality’, which is derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’. It means shape and mask. In plays etc., people play special roles by wearing masks. On changing the role, the mask also changes. It means to say that there are different types of masks for different roles. The type of role that has to be played, the same type of mask is worn. It is necessary to clarify here that personality does not mean only face, complexion, height and dress. Under this, physical, psychological, social and cultural initiatives are included. Different scholars have given the definition of personality in their own way, according to Allport – ‘Personality is the dynamic organization of the psycho-somatic qualities of the individual which determines its unique harmony with the environment. He has tried to make it clear through his definition that personality is a variable sum of physical and mental qualities of a person, which determines his adaptation with the environment. Because of this, a person behaves differently in different situations. According to Park and Burgess, – “Personality is the sum of those aspects of a person’s behavior that determine the role of the person in the group. Like Allport, Park and Burgess have also described personality as a sum of different qualities. Through these qualities, The behavior and roles of the personality are determined in the group. Edward Sapir has written – * Personality is the sum total of those aspects of an individual’s behavior that give him meaning in society and differentiate him from other members of the community. Merrill and Aldwijs According to – “Personality is a set of innate and acquired qualities related to each individual. He has described personality as the sum of innate and acquired qualities. It is clear from the views of the above mentioned scholars that physical, psychological, social, cultural aspects contribute in the formation of personality. This is the reason why a person is a contributor to a common culture. This is the reason why a person, despite being a member of the same culture, develops a different personality from others.

 

 

Basis Of Personality

 

There are three main bases of building personality,

1. physical aspect

2 . Society

3. culture

 

These three have a hand in the development of personality, that is, as a result of their interaction, personality develops. Physical basis – Under this comes the physical structure, size, complexion, height, weight etc. of the person. In general, a person can interpret personality on the basis of these.

It is Rata. That is, looking at the physical appearance, a person is said to have attractiveness or a big personality. Hereditaryists call this basis important in the formation of personality. According to them, heredity, body composition, talent, nervous system and endocrine glands contribute in the formation of personality.

 

Social base – The whole social environment comes under this. Lack of society is not the middle. If a person’s zoological constitution is very good, but he comes to social environment. The development of personality is possible in the absence of society, in such a situation the development of his personality cannot take place. The meaning of saying is that the social income structure is very good, but it has been deprived of social contact, and the effect of culture is also possible only through contact. A child cannot be born when it comes to this earth. It means to say that social contact is necessary. It is possible through the process of social socialization that the society develops the personality of an individual. When a child comes to this earth, it is only a biological being. Society develops a person’s personality through a process and then he becomes a social person from a biological phenomenon. Various social institutions, circumstances and roles have an impact on the personality. All the habits, attitudes, attitudes, values and ideals of these are created, due to which the personality develops.

 

Cultural base – Anthropologists have described cultural base as important in the formation of personality. According to him . Many biological abilities are determined by culture. Anthropologists have discussed the formation of different types of personality on the basis of difference of cultures. The names of Mead, Litton, Cardiner, Dubois etc. are prominent among these scholars. Ya. The scholars are known by the name of Culture Personality School. Referring to the interrelationship of culture and personality, John Gillin said that after birth man enters a man-made environment, which has an impact on the personality of the person. Culture determines certain rules and methods for the fulfillment of human needs. Most of the people of the society believe in them. The practices, traditions, customs, customs, religion, language, art etc. which are included under the culture, express the social and collective way of life. Culture also uses rewards and punishments for appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Ruth Benedict while expressing her opinion said that the practices in which a child is born, from the very beginning, his experiences and behavior start happening accordingly. Further, he also told that culture provides raw material to a person, from which he builds his life. If the raw material itself is insufficient, then the development of the person does not take place completely. If the raw material is sufficient, then the person gets the opportunity to make good use of it. Ferris has called personality the universal aspect of culture. Each society has its own distinctive type of culture, which is different from the other. Each person represents his own culture. This is the reason that due to cultural differences, differences are also found in individuals. According to Kluckhoun and Moore, everyone is in some degree 1. Happens like everyone else. 2 . It is like some other people and not like any other human being. First – from the zoological point of view, the physical characteristics of all humans are similar such as eyes, nose, ears, hands, feet etc. Therefore, every human being is similar to all other people in some or the other way. Second – there are some common behavior patterns in every society. Which a person adopts according to his choice. Thus everyone is like some other people. That is, equality is found in some people on the basis of similar behavior and work. Third – Every person has some special qualities, which are not like any other human being. This is the reason why differences are found in human personality. Due to the difference in the cultural environment, there is no similarity in the common qualities of people of two different cultures.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Society

Concept and characteristics of society

(Concept and Characteristics of Society)

Society, elementary concepts of sociology. I am first and foremost. In common parlance, the word society is used for ‘Groups of men or collection of Individual’. Whereas in Sociology, the word ‘Society’ is used for ‘Social Relation’, which are created by individuals. Sociology studies social relations created by social influence, which we can call society. Aristotle wrote long ago that man is a social animal. Because the person is bound by social relations with each other. Sociology is the science of society. That’s why first of all it is necessary to know what is society? In daily and practical life, people use the word ‘society’ in different meanings.

Generally, people use the word ‘society’ by associating it with language, region, religion, culture, caste and race etc. Relating this to language, a language-speaking group is called a society, such as Hindi society. a religion by associating it with a religion

Those who believe in this call their group a society, like – Hindu society. By associating with the culture, the people of a culture call their group a society, such as the Indian society. By associating in this way, a caste-group calls itself a society, such as – Brahmin society etc. Seeing these examples, it is known that people use the word ‘society’ arbitrarily. This experiment will be called unscientific. The word ‘society’ in sociology is neither a racial group, nor a religious group, nor a regional group, nor a cultural group. The concept of society under Sociology is totally different. Under this, only a group of individuals is not called a society. We live together in trains, buses, fairs etc. for a long time, but even such a group is not called a society. It is meant to say that the word ‘society’ has a specific meaning in sociology. Let’s experiment In the basic sense, ‘society’ is an abstract system of social relations. Many types of relations are found among the social workers. These relationships also continue to be expressed in many forms. There is no limit to any social relations. All these relationships are intertwined. All the people are connected with each other in the form of farmers.

Many sociologists have given the definition of society. Here we will mention the definitions given by some prominent scholars.

In the words of Ginsberg, “Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behavior which distinguish them from all others who do not have such relations or whose behavior is different from them.” It is clear from this definition of Ginsberg that society is made up of social relations. Due to difference in the nature of social relations, one society differs from another society.

Giddings has written, “Society itself is an association, an organization, a sum of formal relations, in which interrelated individuals are connected to each other. There are two main things in this definition – first, society is a group of individuals.” It is the sum of formal relations and secondly it has formal relations. The biggest shortcoming of Giddings’s definition is that only the sum of formal relations has been called society. But there are both formal and informal relations in society and both have equal importance. it happens .

According to Fichter, “Society is an organized group of individuals who live in an area, satisfy their basic needs through co-operative group, have a common culture and act as a separate social unit”. Huh . From this definition of Fictor, all the main things and characteristics of a society are becoming clear. It states that

(i) Society is an association of people, (ii) It has a geographical area, (iii) It has the satisfaction of needs through co-operation, (iv) It has a distinct culture and (v) It is a distinct social unit. serves as .

According to Reuter, “Society is an abstract concept that is found among the members of a group. Wall gives a sense of completeness of mutual relations. Reuter has given the definition of society in a very simple way. In this definition, he has described the mutual relations between groups as important.

Maclver and Page have also explained society more clearly. According to him, “Society is a system of customs and practices, rights and mutual aid, many groups and sub-divisions, controls and freedoms of human behavior. We call this ever-changing complex system society. All the elements of society are included in this definition and it is always changing. MacIver clarified the nature of society through this definition and said that society is a network of social relations. It is not created by individuals. Rather, it is due to the mutual relations found between individuals.From this point of view, society is an abstract organization.

It is clear from all the above definitions of society that

1. Society is a web of social relations.
2. These relations are of different types.
3. Social relations are changeable.
4. Society has a specific culture.
5. It regulates the behavior of individuals.
6. Society is not just a collection of individuals. Society is the name of the groups formed on the basis of social structures, institutions, customs, work-systems and fulfillment of needs.

 

 

 

Basis or Elements of Society

Here we will mention some of the main bases of society, which have been discussed by MacIver and Page in their definition. MacIver said that society is a network of social relations, but it also has some major bases, through which it takes the form of a complex system. MacIver and Page have presented the following bases of society as follows

1. Customs (Usages): There are different types of customs in every society. They are related to different tasks and situations. That is, there are certain rituals for different tasks and different situations, through which they are accomplished. Like food, dress, marriage etc.

There are special rules in relation. It is through these rules that a person is motivated to behave in a particular way on a particular occasion. Therefore, whatever is the custom of the society, so is the behavior of the people there. In this way social relations are formed through these customs and society is formed.

2 . Work-Systems (Procedures) – Some of the main basis of every society are work-systems and rules, by which the system of society is maintained. On the basis of the needs of the people, different work systems have been created for different tasks in the society, through these work systems the needs of the people are fulfilled. If everyone starts acting arbitrarily, then the system of the society will be destroyed. Therefore, it is necessary to behave according to these procedures. This system is based on rules and traditions. Also, it is expected from most of the people that they will complete their tasks through them.

3. Authority – Authority is the main basis of society. Authority is also known by the names of authority and dominance. There is no such society where relations of authority and subordination are not found. For the proper operation of every organization, group and committees of the society, it is necessary that authority and power should be associated with some persons. In their absence, order and peace cannot be maintained in the society. This authority and power control the behavior of the people. Right from the beginning till date, the concept of authority and power has been there in every society. Like – father or doer in the family, head in the panchayat, principal in school and college etc. People have to work with this right and dignity, due to which system or organization remains in the society.
4. Mutual Aid Mutual cooperation is the real basis of the society. Man’s needs are infinite. He himself cannot fulfill all his needs. Mutual cooperation is required for its fulfillment. Social relations are formed only by mutual cooperation. In their absence the society cannot even be imagined. Individuals depend on each other through co-operation and order is maintained in social life. Therefore, it is necessary for any society to have a mutually cooperative relationship.
5. Grouping and Divisions – Different types of groups and divisions are found in every society. Society is made up of these groups and departments. For example, family, neighborhood, caste, class, city, community, etc. The basis of division in the society are age, gender, class, caste, wealth and education etc. All these groups and departments maintain mutual relations. All these (groups and departments) affect our social relations, as well as the society fulfills its functions through these groups and organizations. The more organized these groups and departments are, the more organized the society is.
6. Controls of Human Behaviour: The nature of a human being is such that when he is freed, he starts doing whatever he wants. If every person starts acting arbitrarily in the society, then the system of the society will be disturbed. To maintain the order of the society, it is necessary that there should be control over the behavior of the individuals. Every society has its own rules and regulations, according to which a person has to behave. Society uses some formal and informal means to regulate the behavior of individuals. Administration, police, courts and law etc come in formal means and ethos, custom, tradition, religion etc come in informal means. Through all these means, the behavior of individuals is regulated and controlled, due to which the system of social relations is maintained in the society.

7 Freedom Control and freedom are two sides of the coin in the form of society. Along with control in society, freedom is also necessary. Freedom is also very important for the proper development of a person’s personality. Freedom does not mean that a person can act in his own way. Also, control does not mean that the person’s personality becomes frustrated. This is the reason why MacIver has described both control and freedom as important elements for building a society. In order to keep social relations organized, it is necessary to give freedom to some extent. A person makes social relations with other people according to his wish and opportunity only when he is independent. It is also necessary to say here that freedom should be given to others as much as one’s own freedom is needed.

Similarly, we come to the conclusion that it is very necessary for the society to have these seven bases. All these elements are intertwined. Social relations are formed through these. Some or the other changes take place in these relationships all the time. With this change, the society also changes. The seven pillars of the society are different from place to place. This is the reason that along with the local distance, there is also variation in the nature of the society. That is, according to time and place, some or the other changes take place in the society. MacIver and Page have discussed the definition of society as well as its seven bases. of these seven bases

Mention has been made above. But after knowing about the various definitions and its bases in relation to society, we come to the conclusion that three things are necessary for any society – first, abundance of individuals, second, social relations and third, social End action. The first essential thing for a society is that there should be a considerable number of individuals. Society cannot be built without it. The second essential thing is that there should be a relationship between the individuals. Society is not just a collection of individuals. Unless there is a relationship between them, the society cannot be imagined. The third essential thing for the society is that there should be social interaction between them. That is, there should be mutual awareness among them and they influence each other with their behavior and actions and also get influenced. In the society, a person not only affects others by his/her behavior and actions, but also gets affected.

 

 

characteristics of society

 

(1) Abstraction: – Society is a system of social relations, therefore society is abstract. ‘Wright’ has written that, “We can define society as a system of relations established between them.”

 

(2) Mutual Awareness: – It is known that society is the name of the system of social relations. The basis of social relations is the psychological conditions of the individual. Mutual awareness is necessary for social relations. Unless individuals are aware of each other, relationships cannot develop between them. Man is a social animal. And He has consciousness and awareness. In this way, when people become aware of each other’s existence and work, they will do work in their context and social relations will be formed. MacIver has written that ‘since there is no mutual awareness consciousness between material things, they are nothing in spite of being based on each other. ‘ For example there are books lying on the table which are not animate but material things, but not so for a person. person knows. Who is doing what for us. Therefore, being aware of them, he behaves in the context of them, due to which social relations are formed. Humans have knowledge due to which they are aware of each other, which is the basis of social relationship, which can be written in the form of symbols like this

 

(3) Likeness and Differences in Society: – There is coordination of equality and difference in social relation. Knowledge and awareness of each other is necessary for social relations, which cannot be built until there are similarities and differences between individuals. But the differences to which individuals are attracted to each other must be in a context of equality. Just as day is related to night, imperfect is related to perfect, greater is related to less, similarly equality is related to difference and difference is to similarity. It is necessary for the social relations according to which the society is built. That’s why Giddings wrote. Consciousness of kind is the basis of society.

 

In the words of MacIver and Page, ‘similarity and difference are logically opposed to each other, but ultimately both are related to each other. Both are complementary to each other, through which social relations are built. ,

 

Diversity – Where on the one hand equality is seen in the society, on the other hand diversity is also found. It is also very important to have diversity in the society. This variation can happen in any field. Equal intelligence, ability, functionality, readiness etc. are not found in all the members of the society. Equality is not found even on the basis of gender. That is, it is necessary to have individual and social inequality. It is because of inequality that people need each other and action-reaction takes place between them. Due to this attraction remains in the society. It is because of inequality that division of labor is found in the society. The person who is skilled for the type of work or the type of work in which he is interested, he does the same work. Not all people have the same mental and physical strength. Not all are equally ambitious or indifferent. Due to this, feelings of competition and competition etc. are born in the society. As a result, changes take place in the society. Society moves towards progress. Inequality is also necessary for invention and revolutionary social change in the society. MacIver and Page have said that if all the people of a society were exactly equal to each other in all areas, their social relations would be as limited as that of ants or bees. Thus it is clear that the inequalities complement each other. After getting information about both equality and inequality, it is clear that for the fulfillment of the same objectives (equality), different people cooperate with each other through different actions. Although it is necessary to have equality and inequality in the society, but equality is more important than inequality. Similarities are primary and dissimilarities are secondary. people do dissimilar things together for common needs

For example, the main purpose of schools and colleges is to provide education to the people.

All the people there work to fulfill this purpose through different works. Teachers do different jobs, office staff do different jobs, students have different jobs, etc. Here we are seeing that all the people are fulfilling the same objective of imparting education through different works based on their respective roles. That is, there is a state of internal equality between them.

(4) Interdependence Man’s needs are infinite. He alone cannot fulfill all these needs. As the needs of the people increased, in the same way people got organized due to which the society was formed. People have to depend on each other to fulfill their needs. This mutual dependence creates a feeling of brotherhood and equality among the people. Due to this, relations are established among people and they behave according to the rules of the society. This dependence remains between people from birth till death. The primitive society was very simple and small. At that time the needs of the people were also less, yet people had to depend on each other. There was division of labor among them. There was a division of work between men and women. The women looked after the children and looked after the household and the men hunted and gathered food. The basis of this division was gender discrimination. Due to the division of labour, they were interrelated and dependent. Today in the modern and complex society interdependence has become more. In every area of life, a person has to depend on each other for every need. If there is a change in any one aspect of social life, then other aspects are also affected by it and change takes place in that too. The reason is that all units are interrelated and dependent on each other. Thus it can be said that mutual dependence is an essential element in the formation of society.

(5) Co-operation and Conflict – Like equality and inequality, cooperation and conflict are also essential for the society. From above, these two characteristics appear to be opposite to each other, but in reality they complement each other. The process of cooperation and conflict is found in every society. Society may be simple or complex, primitive or modern, rural or urban, both cooperation and conflict are found. Cooperation – Cooperation is the main basis of social life. Every person needs each other’s cooperation to fulfill his needs. No work can be done alone. Work cannot be done without cooperation in every field of life and in every work. There are two types of cooperation

Indirect cooperation – When some people help or cooperate in their objectives through face-to-face relations. Like different players in the field of sports is called cooperation. Both direct and indirect cooperation are necessary in the society. None of these can be called more and none less important. That much is simple. The importance of direct cooperation is more in small and primitive societies, whereas in complex, large and modern societies, indirect cooperation. The reason for this is that in simple, small and primitive society, direct relationship and face to face relationship is possible. But in a complex, large and modern society, only secondary relations between people are possible. It is not possible for everyone to know each other directly and cooperate directly.

Conflict – Many sociologists have also expressed their views on the importance of conflict. The history of struggle has been going on since time immemorial. There is no such society in the world, where there is no struggle. Whenever any great change has taken place in the society, its root cause has been struggle. Due to their selfishness, purpose, ideas, religion, physical difference and cultural difference, there is a conflict between people. Conflict is also of two types direct conflict and indirect conflict – In direct conflict people cause physical or mental harm to each other through face to face relations. Fighting, rioting, looting, fighting etc. are examples of direct conflict. In such incidents it is seen that people harm each other through direct relation. In indirect conflict, a person harms another for his selfishness and interests. In indirect conflict, there is no face-to-face relationship between people. Competition is the best example of indirect conflict. In this the person or group indirectly obstructs the way of another and wants to fulfill its purpose. ‘Cold War’ is also a good example, which happens between different countries. Like direct cooperation, direct conflict was found more in simple, small and primitive societies. In the complex, large and modern society, indirect struggle has become important. But at this time direct struggle is also present in the society. There is no society in the world where conflict is not found. Just as equality and inequality complement each other, in the same way cooperation and conflict also complement each other. On one hand cooperation teaches to work together and on the other hand it ends conflict, exploitation and injustice. The form of cooperation we get to see today

It has been the result of thousands of struggle. It is written in relation to this, “Society is co-operation crossed huamnflict”. But even though conflict is necessary, it can become the cause of disintegration in the society. It is not necessary that the exploitation and injustice that will disappear through struggle. It is clear from all these things that co-operation develops the feeling of brotherhood and mutual harmony in the society, while conflict ends governance, injustice and evil practices. Therefore, both the characteristics of cooperation and conflict are necessary in the society, but cooperation is more important.

(6) Society is not confined to men only (Society is not confined to Men only). This is also seen in other organisms. McCover and Page have said. Wherever there is life, there is society. That is, society is found in all living beings. to society . It is necessary to have social relations, mutual awareness, equality-disparity, division of labor, cooperation-conflict, mutual dependence. The arrangement of all these things is also seen in other living beings. For example, mutual cooperation, division of labor, conflict, etc. are also found in bees, ants, termites etc. This makes it clear that society is not limited to humans only. But the organization and order that is found in the society of humans is not found in the society of other living beings. In the absence of language, living beings cannot develop their civilization and culture. Humans have developed civilization and culture through their language, experience and thought power. Because of this culture, human society is different and unique from the society of other living beings. Only human society is studied under Sociology. The reason for this is that human society is complete and orderly. It has a culture of its own, due to which it is at the highest peak of development.

(7) Changeability Change is the law of nature. Society is a part of nature, therefore changes also take place in the society. There is no such society in the world where there is no change. Society may be primitive or modern, simple or complex, rural or urban, change is inevitable. Even if there is a decrease or increase in the rate of its change, but the change definitely takes place. MacIver has said that society is a web of social relations. Social relations keep on changing due to various reasons. As a result, the society also changes. Our needs keep changing according to time and situation. With this, the relation of fulfillment of needs also changes. When new ideas and new attitudes develop in the society, then it also affects the ideals and values of the society. The type of society that was found in ancient times is not the same today’s society. Due to industrialization and urbanization, many changes have taken place in the society. It is clear from all these things that there are changes in social relations due to various reasons, as a result, changes take place in the society. Many changes are seen in ancient India and modern Indian society. The form of caste system which was there earlier is no more. The relationship that existed earlier between teacher and student is no more. There were many types of discrimination in other areas as well, which is not there now. Similarly, changes have been taking place in every society of the world. So we can say that society is changing.

 

 

 

 

Types and Examples of Society

Sociology studies society. Society refers to the changeable and complex system of social relations. To better understand the society, the meaning of society, its definition, its basis and its characteristics were clarified. Here some examples of society are being presented so that it can be understood more easily. Various sociologists have discussed the types of society on the basis of their respective viewpoints. For example . According to Durkheim, Mechanical Solidarity and Organic Solidarity, according to Tonnies, Gemenschaft and Gesellschaft (Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft) etc., all the examples given in relation to the society are discussed here on the basis of three types of society. Will

 

Primitive Society – Primitive society is also addressed as tribal society or tribal society. Primitive society refers to such a society whose population is less and they live in a particularly small area. Their social contact is also narrow. Compared to the progressive and technological society, their economy is simple. The classification and specialization between them is also very simple. Division of work is found on the basis of age, gender and age. The culture of primitive society is separate and complete in itself. There is a lack of systematic art and science in them. Their political system is also different. Generally, such societies are found in hilly areas and plateaus amidst forests. Like – Santhal, Toda, Munda and Usaon etc. – There are primary relations between people in Atim society. They are related to each other on the basis of mutual oneness and the feeling of ‘we’. They fulfill their every need within their own society. May to keep contact and neither like to keep contact.

On this basis, this society transfers on oral basis.

. Thus it is the community, which has a separate social relationship between them and a different characteristic from the rest of the society in general.

(ii) Simple and traditional society – is addressed as simple or tradition. In such a society away from the city and village and spirituality have special importance. They are determined by fate and function (status and role) caste, birth and age. J- By calling the simple or traditional society a rural and agrarian society. Today they are away from the city and settled in rural areas. In their life, there is a face-to-face relationship between people in a simple society based on religion, tradition, and emotional unity is also found in them. Mutual cooperation among themselves (i) There is a feeling of primitive society. They are aware of each other’s sorrow and happiness. That is, a primary relationship is found between them. People’s behavior is regulated on the basis of religion, custom, tradition and morality etc. (Simple or Traditional. There is less conflict among each other. Science and Technology (Science Society) and Technology) do not develop. The form of division of labor and specialization is also very simple. The economy of a simple society is agrarian-oriented. The main occupation of the people is agriculture and the rate of social mobility and social change is very slow in a simpler society. In such a society, personal ability, wealth, education and business do not have much importance. The status of women is also very low. Simple society is relatively large as compared to primitive society. The characteristics of this society are simple due to which it is lower than primitive and modern society.

(iii) Complex and modern society – Complex or modern society is much larger and wider than the primitive and simple society. In such a society some or the other selfishness is hidden behind every cooperation and relationship. Secondary relationship is found between people. Everyone thinks about their own interest and selfishness. Lack of ‘we feeling’ is found in people. There is a spirit of struggle and competition between different people and groups. In such a society, there is a lot of disparity in the aims and interests of the people. Science, technology, economy and political organization are highly developed in complex societies. There is a lot of division of labor and specialization. In such a society, the population of people and their social contacts are also wide. The structure of society and its functions are very complex. In such a society, religion, tradition, morality etc. do not have much importance. In such a situation, the importance of literature, systematic art and logic increases. New institutions, businesses and machines are created daily in a complex society. The work of the persons related to it are divided and are limited in themselves. But in this diversity there is unity. In such a society, the needs of the people are so high that no one person alone can fulfill them. Everyone has to depend and depend on each other. But these relations remain limited to the editing of the work. Complex or modern society is city dominated. Different types of industries keep on developing here. The status of people in this society is determined by personal ability, education, wealth and occupation. People are engaged in different types of business and there is a lot of specialization. There is a formal relationship between them. In such a society, control is imposed on the behavior of the people by law, police and court. In a complex society, the rate of social mobility and social change is very fast.

St. Simon describes three types of society:

(a) Militant Society,

(b) Legal Society, and

(c) Industrial Society

 

Auguste Comte mentions three types of society:

(a) Theological Society,

(b) Metaphysical Society, and

(c) Positivist Society

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(i) Tylor’s contribution to the study of primitive religion

Although Tyler embraced the whole field

Anthropological investigation, his most extensive treatment was in the field of primitive religion. He began to define religion in such a simple way as to include all its forms, such as “belief in spiritual beings”. He asserted that religion was a cultural universal, as no known culture was without such beliefs. He also explained how the belief in spirits could arise, but before discussing this I would like to give here a brief classification of theoretical and practical religion, which will be very useful for students to understand primitive religion. totality.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Van Gennep (1908) classified the religion in his book “Rites of Passage” in the following way: Theory (Religion)

 

Dynamism                                                                                                  Animism

(monistic, impersonal etc.)                                                                                                 (dualism, personal etc)

 

 

Totemism                               Spiritism                    Polydemonism                                                Theism

(with intermediate stages) Technique (Magico-Religious)

 

Sympathetic                           Contagious               Direct                                                Indirect                    Positive                                                Negative

(taboo)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction To Religion

 

1. Religion describes beliefs, values, and practices related to sacred or spiritual concerns. Social theorist Émile Durkheim defined religion as “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things” (1915). Max Weber believed that religion could be a force for social change. Karl Marx viewed religion as a tool used by capitalist societies to perpetuate inequality. Religion is a social institution as it consists of beliefs and practices that meet the needs of the society.

 

2. Religion is also an example of a cultural universal as it is found in all societies in some form or the other. Functionalism, conflict theory, and interactionism all provide sociologists with valuable ways to understand religion.
3. Why do sociologists study religion? For centuries, mankind has tried to understand and explain the “meaning of life”.

 

4. Many philosophers believe that this desire to contemplate and understand our place in the universe is what separates mankind from other species. Religion, in one form or another, has been found in all human societies ever since human societies first appeared. Archaeological excavations have revealed ancient ritual objects, ceremonial burial sites, and other religious artifacts.

 

5. Many social conflicts and even wars have resulted from religious disputes. To understand a culture, sociologists must study its religion.
6. What is religion? Pioneer sociologist Émile Durkheim described it with the ethereal statement that it “contains things that transcend the limits of our knowledge” (1915). He elaborated: Religion is “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that which is separate and forbidden, beliefs and practices which are united in a single moral community, called a church, which belongs to all”. obey them ”(1915).

 

7. Some people associate religion with places of worship (a synagogue or church), others with a practice (confession or meditation), and still others with a concept that is relevant to their daily lives (eg Dharma or sin). All of these people can agree that religion is a system of beliefs, values, and practices that a person holds to be sacred or to be spiritually significant.
8. Religion can also act as a filter to examine other issues in society and other components of culture. For example, after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States, it became important for teachers, church leaders, and the media in North America to educate citizens about Islam in order to prevent stereotyping and promote religious tolerance. can be promoted. Sociological tools and methods such as surveys, surveys, interviews, and analysis of historical data can be applied to the study of religion in culture to help better understand the role of religion in people’s lives and the way in which It affects the society.
9. If there was any doubt about the sociological importance of religion, the terrorist events of Tuesday morning, September 11, 2001, and its aftermath renewed our awareness that religion matters in contemporary times. The terrorist acts crystallized how an adherence to religious fundamentalism can destroy lives and forever change the lives of many others.

 

10. Public response to terrorist attacks points to a different side of religion: the positive cultural power of ritual to remember relationships with those who have died and to affirm communal unity and solidarity in times of trial We do. Who would have thought that in the early twenty-first century a mix of flowers, photographs, steel and foam crosses in public memorials, and candlelight vigils would light up downtown Manhattan, the most modern and urban of metropolises?
11. Clearly, the beginning of a new century has not marked an eclipse of religion in personal life and public culture. Despite this, and perhaps because of our disillusionment with our increasingly rational society, religion continues to provide meaning and interweave daily social, economic and political activities. The continuing importance of religion in later modern society was not anticipated by classical social theorists and is in contrast to much of contemporary theory due to a number of factors. From an intellectual perspective this largely reflects the excessive emphasis on reason and the tendency to relegate religion to the realm of the non-rational that characterizes modern social thought.

 

12. Plainly stated, the former holds a calculative, heuristic rationality as the overarching determinant of all forms of social action, whereas the latter sees religion and reason as inherently incompatible.
13. The dominance of instrumental reason as envisaged by Max Weber (1904-5/1958) has definitely passed. Few would challenge the view that an economic-technological rationality is the primary engine of our globalized society. The argument for free trade, for example, legitimizes the relocation of companies to cities, regions and countries where production costs are comparatively low. technical development corporations

allows distributors to have more cost-effective communication with their customers via the Internet, and as a result many companies have chosen to bypass the human distributors who until recently were a key component of their corporate relational networks; Travel agents and car dealers are two such visible groups of “techno-victims”. When Boeing moved from Seattle to Chicago and when Guinness moved from there

14. Means-end calculations from Ireland to Brazil did not quantify community costs

 

15. The emotional and cultural harm attendant upon disruption or disruption of the symmetry of symbol and place. In today’s world, as exemplified so well by professional sports, teams are run and fan loyalty is almost as important as player contracts.
16. Codified rationality as a whole in professions means that specialization is a badge of honor rather than the breadth of the Renaissance. Thus in sociology, as Robert Wuthnow argues (Chapter 2), sub-specialization rather than personal bias is largely responsible for many sociologists’ inattention to questions in sub-fields such as religion because they regard them as their primary specialization. Watch as it falls out. Even though sociology emphasizes the reciprocity of social phenomena, institutional practices (e.g., publication and promotion decisions) and rational organization of the discipline require specialization (e.g., separate sections within the American Sociological Association, Each with its own membership, council, and newsletter).
17. Yet despite the dominance of a calculative rationality, there are many examples of non-strategic action and contexts in which the two co-exist. Ethics still have a place in individual and corporate behavior even in the most strategic area of the techno-economic domain. For example, Cantor Fitzgerald, a government bond trader who lost more than two-thirds of his employees during the terrorist destruction of the World Trade Center, was widely recognized for his initially compassionate response to the victims’ families (e.g., providing food and other amenities). was highly praised.

 

18. at a local hotel to meet the families of the victims). Although within a week of the attack it cut its missing employees from payroll saying it would avoid bookkeeping distortions, Cantor Fitzgerald executives later publicly offered victims’ families 25% of the partners’ profits over the next ten years. percent, a decision that appears to have been driven more by ethics rather than economic considerations (despite the good public relations it received). More generally, there is still some recognition in advanced capitalist societies such as the United States that loyalty to family, community, and nation is a valid factor in economic decisions.
19. Ionizing despite the continuing evidence of the excesses of corporate greed and their tendency to obscure the hold of ethical behavior in the marketplace.

 

20. In short, didactic reasoning is not the only engine of modern life; Moral, emotional, or what Durkheim (1893/1997) termed non-contractual, elements of the contract continue to shape social behaviour, albeit often in ambiguous ways.
21. The focus of Douglas Massey’s 2001 presidential address to the American Sociological Association was that reason and emotion are intertwined rather than anathema. Massey (2002:2) emphasizes that “human beings are not only rational. Human beings are added as a rational component to an already existing emotional basis, and our focus is on the interplay between rationality and emotionality.” rather than theorizing, or presenting, the former while neglecting the latter.

 

22. Opposite each other (emphasis in original). The interplay between reason and emotion is most clearly demonstrated by Robert Bellah’s analysis of the “Ritual Roots of Society and Culture” (Chapter 3, this section). Bela draws on recent advances in neurophysiology, Paleolithic archaeology, ethnography, and anthropology to elaborate on the foundations of ritual in human society. He focuses on the centrality of symbolic exchange in human development and on the deep-seated need of the individual to relate to other social beings. The Bellahs believe that colloquial speech and gesture affirm the syncretic rhythm and social solidarity that they recognize as the non-utilitarian dimension of social life, or sacredness. Drawing on Emile Durkheim’s (1912/1976) concept of ritualism and the creative ambiguity inherent in the virtual interchangeability of religious and social practice, Beulah points to the many expressions of ritual in everyday life—dinners, games, military drill, Rituals of Education, and of Politics. He argues that such diverse rituals “can be seen as the basis of any kind of social action, an element of the sacred and thus a manifestation of the religious.”
23. As for Béla and other sociologists (eg, Collins 1998; Goffman 1967), ritual is the most fundamental category for understanding social action because it expresses and confirms the shared meaningful experience and emotional bonds of individuals’ social affiliation. Bella is well aware that the utilitarian rationality of our market society can be ambiguous.

It cuts and sometimes can destroy the bond of togetherness. Nevertheless, he is clear that “we are surrounded by ritual in myriad forms,” and that, “if we look in the right places,” we can see it unfolding in the economic sphere.

 

 

24. As Beulah’s analysis shows, the sacred, or non-rational, pulsates across multiple sites and is intertwined with formal rational processes. Reason matters, but so too, does the individual’s need to connect with others and experience a sense of social reciprocity. Thus according to Erik Erikson’s (1963) theory, the development of interpersonal trust is important for individual and social well-being; Social life requires us to form meaningful and purposeful relationships with others. It is the abiding need for human interconnectedness that ignites social action as the smoldering embers of the search for some form of communal solidarity. The power of religion lies partly in the resources it provides towards building and shaping meaningfully connected individual and communal lives; The religious or sacred thus persists despite the pervasive presence of rationality in society.

 

 

25. Religion is difficult to define. The difficulty is due to the fact that there are many religions and there is no single definition that is agreed upon. However, religion is a set of beliefs, symbols and practices and rituals that are based on ideas of the sacred, and that unite believers into a socio-religious community. The sacred is compared to the profane because it involves feelings of awe. Sociologists define religion in terms of the sacred, rather than belief in a god or gods, because it makes social comparison possible. For example, some versions of Buddhism do not include belief in a god. Religion is also contracted with magic as the latter is considered individualistic. Related to religion are invisible religion, new religion and secularism.
26. Mazumdar and Madan (1963) have defined religion in the Indian context. they write :
27. Then there is religion; It is a human response to the apprehension of something or a power that is supernatural and supersensuous. It is an expression of the manner or type of adjustment that people make to their conception of the supernatural.
28. Religion was in fact considered a product of civilization until Tylor provided strong evidence that primitive societies had their own versions of religious activities, not much different from those of civilized societies. Since Tylor’s ideas were published, no ethnographer has reported any primitive society without religious beliefs and practices.

 

 

 

 

meaning of religion

1. From an etymological point of view, Buké has shown, religion is derived from the Latin word rel(l)igio, which itself is derived either from the root leg- meaning ‘to gather, count the observation’, or from the root Se lig – which means ‘to bind’. The implication in the former sense is belief in and observation of signs of divine communication. Implicit in the latter sense is the performance of necessary actions, which may bind man and supernatural forces together. Both the implications are relevant in view of the fact that belief and ritual are found to be the main constituent parts of religions everywhere.
2. Beliefs and Rituals. As already stated, all religions involve a mental approach to the supernatural. ‘The most widespread expression of this view is in the form of beliefs and customs, the former often wrongly called myths. What we call myths are believed by the people to whom they belong, and are therefore better designed as religious beliefs or beliefs. This is the basis of belief and ritual in all religions, primitive and modern.

 

3. The ritual consists of the observance, according to a prescribed manner, of certain actions designed to establish contact between the person performing them and a supernatural power, or forces. Beliefs are a charter for rituals, as well as a rationale that ensures that rituals will be followed. What separates the so-called high religions from the primitive variety is the relative lack of later philosophical speculation. Primitive man has not been found in philosophizing as much as modern man. However, the presence of one form or another of religion has always been reported by investigators; And today Jung has made it an essential feature of human life without which the full integration of the human personality is not possible.
4. However, it may be kept in mind that the concept of the exact nature of the supernatural varies from society to society and people to people. For some there may be the formation of supernatural ghosts and spirits; To others it may be an impersonal force that pervades everything in this world; To still others it may appear through anthropomorphic deities, or a higher god, and so on.
5. Data collected from many primitive societies around the world shows that primitives generally distinguish between two constituent elements in the supernatural realm; There is a sacred part and there is an unholy part. According to Durkheim, the sacred part, which has been called religion, and the profane part as magic or primitive science. However, Malinowski

and classified magic as the sacred part and science as the profane.

 

 

 

 

sociology of religion

There are many sociology – sociology of family, political sociology, sociology of tribes and sociology of religion. What is important in all these Sociologies is the sociological perspectives studied in the study of a particular subject. In the sociology of politics, political processes are studied from a sociological perspective; In economic sociology, production, distribution and exchange are studied from the point of view of sociology.

The sociology of religion has been established with the production of abandoned research material. of sociology

 

 

 

The Oxford Dictionary defines sociology of religion as:

 

1. The influential study of religious institutions, beliefs and practices originated in
2. Criticism of Marxism and Neo-Hegelian religion, but it is mainly associated with late nineteenth-century research into religious phenomena by Émile Durkheim, Georg Simmel, William Robertson Smith, Ernst Troltsch and Max Weber. A psychoanalytic theory of religious behavior was also developed by Sigmund Freud.

 

3. The sociology of religion should be distinguished from the sociology of religion, which has been employed by the Roman Catholic Church to improve the effectiveness of its missionary work in industrialized societies, but which is related to both the phenomenology and anthropology of religion.
4. The sociology of religion should be seen as a critique of the positivist theories of the nineteenth century, which were concerned with explaining the origin of religion on rationalist and individualistic assumptions. This positivist tradition regarded religion as the erroneous beliefs of individuals that would eventually disappear when scientific ideas became widely established in society. For example, it was assumed that Darwinism would undermine religious belief in a divine creator. Religion was considered irrational.
5. The sociology of religion, in contrast, viewed religion as non-rational, collective and symbolic. It was not interested in the historical origins of religion in ‘primitive societies’. Religion was not based on misconception, but was a response to the human need for meaning. It was not individualistic but social and collective. It was about symbol and ritual rather than faith and knowledge. The development of scientific knowledge was therefore irrelevant to the social functions of religion. When we talk about sociology of religion we should mention that there are two traditions in the sub-discipline of sociology. One tradition is that of Durkheim and the other that of Weber.
6. Emile Durkheim’s The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912) is a classic statement of his sociological approach. He defined religion as ‘a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is, forbidden things – beliefs and practices which unite in a single moral community called the Church, all who adhere to them. By ‘primary forms’ Durkheim means the basic structures of religious activity; He rejected as unscientific the primitive origins or any investigation of religion, instead focusing on the social functions of religious practices. He also rejected rationalist criticism of faith by focusing on practices related to the sacred. His approach has been fundamental to the sociological understanding of religion.
7. The sociology of religion is thus concerned with the problem of defining religion and distinguishing religion from magic. It has largely discarded the idea that religion is a collection of beliefs in God. Instead the emphasis is on practice in relation to the sacred. Alternative approaches define religion as the ultimate concern that all human beings have to address. Many sociologists have subsequently identified religions with the social.
8. There are generally two conflicting traditions in the sociology of religion: the Durkheim and Weberian traditions. Whereas Durkheim was interested in the social functions of religion in general in relation to social integration, Max Weber was primarily concerned with the problem of theodicy (any explanation of the fundamental moral problems of death, suffering, and evil) and comparative studies. Moksha Drive.

 

9. Weber in his The Sociology of Religion (1922) identified two major religious orientations towards the world—mysticism and asceticism. He was particularly interested in economics and religious attitudes towards sexuality. He argued that inner-world asceticism (or the ethic of world mastery) represents the most radical attempt to impose a rational regulation on the world. He explored this in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905).
10. Some sociologists have claimed that in modern societies, urbanization, cultural pluralism, and the spread of scientific understanding of the world have resulted in an intensive process of secularization (or religious decline). This thesis has also been challenged by sociologists, who argue that religion is transformed rather than reduced.
11. The sociology of religion was originally at the theoretical center of sociology as a whole, as it deals with the character of rational action, the importance of symbols and ultimately the nature of the social.

It was related to understanding. However, it has been argued that contemporary sociology of religion has lost much of this analytical importance, as it focuses on narrow empirical issues such as recruitment patterns to Christian ministry.

12. The comparative study of world religions which was fundamental to Weber’s approach has been neglected.
13. Brian Wilson’s Religion in a Sociological Version
14. Perspectives (1982) and Steve Bruce’s Religion in Modern Britain (1995) both follow most of the topics raised in this entry and an excellent introduction to the field as a whole. See also civil religion, invisible religion, private religion, Protestant ethnic thesis, religious innovation, religious revival and sect.

 

 

 

 

reason in religion

1. Having asserted that the non-rational is what constitutes human society, it is also important to acknowledge that reason has a solid place in religion. Most social theories leave it unsaid. As a result it is sometimes assumed that religion and practical reason are incompatible. This perspective is most clearly evident in the writings of Jürgen Habermas (1984, 1987).

 

2. Habermas rejects unilateral rationality that privileges strategic action and instead proposes a non-strategic, communicative rationality grounded in a process of deductive reasoning. However, in doing so, he denies the relevance of irrational elements to communicative exchange. He rejects arguments that he sees as tainted by their association with emotion, belief, and tradition, and therefore discards a vast amount of resources used in everyday practices.

 

3. Although Habermas is correct in being skeptical about the ways in which emotion and tradition often obscure power inequalities that allow certain “truths” to dominate institutional practices, his strict demarcation between religion and deductive reasoning Presents religion as a monolithic, dogmatic force. Thus he ignores the openness of diverse religious traditions to rational self-criticism and debate, and the centrality of theoretical and practical reasoning in individual and collective interpretations of religious teachings (Dillon 1999b).
4. In the same way strategic and n
5. Strategic action coexists, overlaps, and can be divided into daily life, religion and reason, also coexist and be interspersed and fragmented into religious traditions and individual and institutional practices. For many individuals and groups, the continuing relevance of religion stems from the fact that religious institutions, doctrines, and practices are, at least partially, open to rational criticism and change.

 

6. Although the founding narratives of religious traditions can be seen as divinely inspired, their subsequent institutionalization is a social process. Because religious institutions are social institutions whose practices evolve over time and adapt to changing cultural and historical conditions, the boundaries of religious identity are contentious and mutable.
7. For example, many practicing Catholics maintain their commitment to Catholicism, while still challenging the Church’s teachings on gender and sexuality. Feminist Catholics invoke historical and doctrinal reasons, such as the presence of women in the texts and historical accounts of early Christianity and the Church’s doctrine on equality, for what they see as the theological arbitrariness of the Church’s ban on female priests. to argue against.

 

8. Similarly, gays and other Catholics question why the official markers of Catholic identity attach much more importance to sexual morality than to the daily Christian morality of judgment. Many of these Catholics, therefore, remain Catholic, but explicitly criticize Catholicism and do so in ways that enable them to combine not only Catholicism but their religious and other social identities. Indeed, in this regard, the negotiation of religious identity in contemporary America provides a good example of how pragmatic congruence – in a pluralistic and multicultural society – can sometimes appear as heterogeneous identity (Dillon 1999a: 255–6). .
9. For example, the interweaving of religion and reason in everyday life also means that although many Americans express belief in God and an afterlife (eg, Greeley and Hout 1999), this does not mean that is that they are in fact supposed to have an afterlife and, in any case, may go about their daily activities with a certain religious indifference. Religion matters in many people’s lives and in public culture, but it is not the only or most important thing and its relevance ebbs and flows relative to what is going on. In sum, reason and religion are sometimes coupled and sometimes separated in the diverse individual and institutional contexts of daily life (cf. Dillon 2001).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sociology Of Religion

 

Max Weber is the most prominent thinker who established an independent branch like ‘Sociology of Religion’ in sociology by doing a very subtle scientific study of religion. Weber had started studying Calvinism of Protestant religion in his student life. your practical

On the basis of experiences, Weber came to the belief that religion is not only related to the system of worship and beliefs, but the essence of religion is its policies or ethics that affect the economic and social behavior of the followers of a particular religion. . On the basis of this hypothesis, Weber presented his views by studying various religions of the world and mainly Protestant and Catholicism, which were published in his world book ‘Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’. . This book became a guide for social scientists studying religion. Under this, the method used for the study of religion was a new understanding of Weber, due to which Max Weber is also called the ‘father of sociology of religion’. In the background of Weber’s thoughts, it is also necessary to understand the conditions that inspired Weber to adopt a new approach to religion. First of all, Baden (Baden), a student of Weber, had concluded after his study that compared to the students who believed in Catholic religion, the students who believed in Protestant religion were more trying to get admission in industrial education institutions. Secondly, Weber also observed that in times of economic and political crisis in many countries of Europe, the people who believed in Protestant religion strengthened their economic condition through hard work while the followers of Catholicism could not do so. Thirdly, in the countries of Europe where the influence of Protestant religion is more, the development of capitalism was more in comparison to those countries where the number of people who believed in Catholic religion was more. All these conditions inspired Weber to study all the major religions of the world to understand the effect of religious practices on the behavior of a person. After extensive study of various religions, Weber came to the conclusion that ordinary people are influenced by religion only because of their worldly aspirations. They are not influenced by religion because they have some special attachment to big religious ideas. Along with finding out the influence of religious ethos in different societies, Weber specifically tried to know whether there is any co-relation between the ethos of Protestant religion and the development of capitalism. This study of Weber is the main basis of his ‘Sociology of Religion’. From this point of view, it is necessary to understand the main features of capitalism as described by Weber and the interrelationship of economic system and religious factors by understanding the ethics of Protestant religion.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Spirit of Capitalism

 

In most part of his book ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’, Weber has thrown light on the problem of how the policies of Protestant religion or puritanical ideas have affected capitalism? To explain this, Weber told that capitalism is a major feature of modern societies. It is true that capitalist economy has existed in many historical stages but the nature of modern capitalism is different from the old capitalist system. Weber was first aware of the nature of modern capitalism from his family. He got to see a unique combination of ethics related to individualism and economic practices in his family. Weber’s uncle Carl David was a respected entrepreneur. There were qualities of hard work, lack of show off, kindness and rationality in his behavior and living. These were the qualities which were present in all the big industrialists under modern capitalism. As a result, Weber began to believe that modern capitalism is a special type of morality, which includes many ideas. According to Weber, it is a special quality of the man of the modern industrial world that for him hard work is a duty and he believes in accepting its fruits in this life. The basis of personal satisfaction of a man in capitalism is that he should do his business with hard work – not with the feeling that he has to do that work under compulsion but with the feeling that he himself wants to do it. Weber wrote that “a person is expected to feel and perform duties related to his career, regardless of the field of activity.” There is a saying in America that if If something is worth doing, it should be done in the best possible way. According to Weber, this adage is the essence of capitalism because this concept is not related to any supernatural purpose but to the success achieved by the individual in economic life. To clarify the essence of capitalism, Weber compared it with another economic activity, which he named ‘conservatism’. Paramparabad is a special situation in economic activities in which people want to do minimum work even after getting more returns. They like maximum comfort during work and do not want to use new methods of work. In the condition of traditionalism, people get satisfied with simple income for living and make such efforts from which sudden benefits can be obtained. Their relations with customers and employees are personal. Accumulating wealth in an unprincipled manner is also an aspect of economic conservatism. 24 All this and

The characteristics are diametrically opposite to the essence of capitalism. Weber’s view was that the economic activities of Southern Europe, the privileged groups of Asia, Chinese officials, the aristocrats of Rome, and the landowners east of the Elbe River were conducted in order to obtain sudden profits, in which they abandoned all moral considerations. Was . There was also a lack of logical efforts in their activities, due to which those activities cannot be equated with modern capitalism. Defining capitalism on this basis, Weber wrote that “modern capitalism is a set of interrelated institutions based on rational economic effort, not the effort of speculators.” 25 This means that the legal form of business corporations, Organized exchange system, production of goods on rational basis, organized system of sale, credit system, mutual dependence based on private property and division of labor are the main features of modern capitalism. According to Weber, these characteristics related to the essence of capitalism have been the properties of Western societies only. In many other societies too, there have been people who ran their business very rationally, who worked harder than servants, who lived a life far from pomp and who used their savings to expand business. Even after this, the influence of these capitalist characteristics continued to be found in western societies to a greater extent than in other societies. The reason for this was that in the West these qualities did not remain personal qualities but developed into a general way of living. In this way hard work, business rationalism, public credit system, continuous appropriation of capital and voluntary acceptance for labor is the essence of capitalism. On the contrary, trying to get sudden economic benefits, considering hard work as a burden and a curse, run away from it. Accumulating wealth in an unprincipled way and being satisfied with normal income for living are traditional economic trends. Weber has also highlighted the characteristics that are found in societies influenced by the modern animist system. In brief, these characteristics can be understood as follows:

 

(1) Scientific mode of business management – The main feature of modern capitalist system is that it gives more importance to scientific method in business or business. Under this, new methods of business start developing in the society. Not only systematic methods are used to keep track of income and expenditure, but efforts are made to make maximum use of resources by estimating the demand for goods in the future on a logical basis.

 

(2) Use of Scientific Techniques in the System of Production – Weber is of the opinion that people doing business in capitalist societies always use such techniques by which they can achieve maximum success. Be able to Their objective is to consider and use such methods by which the raw material, labor and management used in the production of goods can be used more and more. In these societies, the traditional feudal ideas of the people start changing. New opportunities of employment increase in the society. Provision is made to give wages and salaries to the workers in such methods so that their work efficiency can increase. The working conditions of the workers are improved in such a way that they can contribute more and more in the process of production considering themselves safe.

 

(3) Scientific Laws – In capitalist economy, the rules of the society also start changing in such a way that all the classes engaged in the process of production can get trust of each other. As a result, such laws are made by the state which can protect the interests of entrepreneurs and workers on the one hand and create a favorable environment for industrial development on the other. These laws and rules are not based on any tradition but according to the present and future needs.

 

(4) Free Labor and Free Trade Max Weber told that in capitalist societies every person has the freedom to choose his occupation. Weber explained that India is an example of a traditional society in which, on the basis of the caste system, each individual is bound to follow the occupation prescribed for his own caste. As a result, occupational mobility in India has reduced a lot. On the other hand, occupational mobility is more in societies with capitalistic love system because there the person is not restrained by any custom or tradition in the choice of his labor or occupation. This situation gives an opportunity to the person to establish balance in his need and important desire.

 

(5) Organized Markets for Trade and Sale of Goods – Weber pointed out that organized markets are created for trade and sale of goods in modern capitalist societies. These markets range from local level to international level. These markets have their own special rules for economic activities. In these, the loan transactions are conducted on a systematic basis and the loans are processed by large organizations.

Related activities are controlled. Weber states that the development of such markets is mainly the result of the industrial revolution in Europe. Thus Weber made it clear that the essence of capitalism is a special kind of business ethics in which the individual is not evaluated on the basis of ascribed status but on the basis of his rationality and efficiency.

 

 

 

 

 

Protestant Ethic

 

 

After clarifying the essence of capitalism, Waver presented many reasons on the basis of which the origin of capitalism can be traced in the context of religious ethics. Before Weber, Petty, Montesquieu, Buckle and Keats had made it clear through their studies that there is a co-relation between the Protestant religion and the growth of mercantilism. Influenced by these, Weber presented the idea that different religions and their related principles (bachar) should be considered from the point of view of what kind of teachings they give to those who believe in the Father and what kind of teachings they give through the discussion of the relationship between man and God. encourage such behaviour. Weber wanted to explain how the ethics of Protestantism became a source of inspiration for those who were in favor of the rational pursuit of economic gain. Keeping this in mind, Weber on the one hand obtained accurate information about the affairs of the Protestant religion from several priests and on the other hand clarified the effect of these ethos on the daily conduct of the people as compared to Catholicism. In the form of Protestantism, St. Paul told that “The policy of Protestantism is that the person who does not work is not entitled to food, in order to increase the glory of God, along with the poor, the rich people must engage in some business or the other.” And the greatest religious allegiance of a person is to lead a more and more active life.” Richard Baxter, highlighting the Protestant Ethic, said that “It is only for the sake of religion that God protects us and our actions.” Labor is the moral and natural end of power. It is only through labor that God’s honor can be increased by doing the highest service to him.” John Bunyan, another Christian saint, explained the ethos of Protestantism in these words: After death you will not be asked what you believed; you will only be asked whether you worked hard or spent time talking.” Based on a detailed manual solidified. According to this, wasting time in vain is a deadly sin. Life is fleeting and valuable, so one should spend every moment in a useful business to increase the glory of God. Being engaged is a sin because due to these one cannot actively fulfill the work of earning one’s livelihood according to the will of God. From this point of view, the policies of Protestantism are against the ideal of personal conduct that “the rich should do no work or that the religious focus is more valuable than the worldly obligations of the individual.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Correlation Between Protestantism And The Development Of Capitalism

 

, Weber found many similarities between the main features of capitalism and the study of Protestant ethics. In other words, it can be said that through his exhaustive study, Weber discovered many elements of Protestantism which could be directly related to the development of capitalism. Only by understanding these ethos of Protestant religion as explained by Weber, their relation with the development of capitalism can be known.

 

Establishment of Rational Values from Traditional Values – Weber’s view that conservatism found in other religions developed because the individual engaged in various rituals and methods of worship to know the secret of are . In contrast, Protestant ethics encouraged a reason that accepts God but does not waste its time delving into its mysteries. Weber is of the opinion that in some countries of Europe scientific inventions and rational thinking which promoted capitalism increased because the ethos of Protestant religion itself was encouraging rational thinking. On the contrary, in the spiritual thought of India, an attempt was made to discover the mysteries of God through Jnana-yoga, Bhakti-yoga and penance. Buddhism accepted knowing the mystery of God as the way to salvation. This is the reason why Protestantism developed as a more rational and rational religion than other religions, which is a favorable condition for the development of capitalism.

 

(2) Creative Attitude towards Work – According to Protestant ethics, work is worship in itself. ‘ Weber explained that it was because of considering hard work as a religious virtue that the followers of Protestantism

The tendency to work more and more increased, which explains its co-relation with capitalism. In Protestant religion, where work and diligence are considered important qualities of a person, the attitudes found towards work in some other religions are different from this. For example, in Roman Catholicism, work is considered a punishment that God gave to Adam and Eve. According to the beliefs of Catholicism, when Adam plucked the fruit from the tree of paradise at the behest of Eve, God sent him to earth as a punishment. God cursed them that Eve and her daughters would suffer while giving birth to children and their children would have to work hard to earn a living. It is on the basis of this belief that the followers of Catholicism see any work and sacrifice as a punishment given by God. The ethos of the Catholic religion allows only men to work while women are supposed to do household chores. In contrast, the Protestant Ethic accepts the work done by women as a special quality of them. In this way, Weber accepted the ethics of Protestant religion towards work and labor as a supporting basis of capitalism.

 

(3) The Concept of Salvation – – The concept of salvation in Protestant religion is based on the beliefs of Calvinism. This concept is called the ‘Theory of Predestination’. According to Calvin’s opinion, the God who gave birth to man, the same God has already decided whether he will go to heaven or hell. Worship-recitation or any other effort by a person cannot change this determination of God. According to Calvin’s opinion, only on the basis of the success of a person’s work, it can be estimated that which person will go to heaven. In this way, the followers of Protestant religion believe that the more successfully a person completes his work, the more certain he is to go to heaven. On the basis of this belief, the followers of Protestant religion try more and more to be successful in their work and business. Weber pointed out that in many other religions, professional success is not seen as a basis for attaining heaven or salvation. In Hindu religion, a person has been allowed to do business work only during the period of Grihastha Ashram. In this way, while comparing the ethics of Protestant religion with other religions, Weber pointed out that the ethics of Protestant religion are closely related to the development of capitalism.

 

(4) New Attitudes towards Collection of Interest on Loans (New Attitudes towards Collection of Interest on Loans) – – Where Catholicism considers it a crime to take interest on loan, the ethics of Protestant religion allow earning money from money. . In 1545, when Calvin Church gave the slogan that money should be earned from money, since then the interest taken on loan by Protestant religion was considered appropriate. Only because of this idea, capitalism started to develop in the societies that believed in Protestant religion, while the followers of Catholicism stayed away from the transactions of loan and interest because of their morality. According to Weber, interest on loan is considered unfair in many other religions as well. For example, it is written in the Qur’an, the scripture of Islam, that taking interest is a crime. There is also a provision in the Quran to punish the person who takes usury. Weber is of the opinion that in societies where there is no tendency to earn money from money, the practice of giving and taking loans freely does not increase in those societies. As a result of this, there is not much establishment of businesses and industries in such societies. Protestantism presented a more liberal approach to debt and interest, as a result of which the importance of capital increased in the societies affected by it.

 

(5) Strictures on Alcoholism – The ethics of Protestant religion forbids its followers to consume intoxicants. Weber has accepted this ban on drugs as an important reason for the development of capitalism. This is because only people who do not drink alcohol can work more efficiently in the midst of large machines. Weber pointed out that there is no such prohibition against drunkenness in Catholicism, as a result of which

 

Its followers do not find much enthusiasm towards work. On the other hand, the followers of Protestantism not only reduced their laziness but also increased their efficiency and enthusiasm towards work by running a widespread movement of prohibition. In this way, this ethos of Protestant religion also proved helpful in the development of capitalism.

 

(6) Encouragement to Literacy and Learning – – One of the main ethics of Protestant religion is that each of its followers should not depend on any priest or pastor to read the Bible, but should read this holy book himself. needed . Weber says that due to this ethos, the trend of reading and learning increased among the followers of Protestant religion and as a result, the rate of literacy and education could increase among the followers of Protestant religion. Along with Weber, many other sociologists have also made it clear that education

The increase in the rate has a direct relation with the social development. The reality is that the rational relations on which the capitalist economy is based cannot be developed without education. From this point of view, the ethics of Protestant religion again seem helpful in capitalism.

 

(7) Rejection of Holidays – Weber pointed out that the Protestant religion’s ethos towards work is not in favor of more holidays. As a result, the followers of this religion like to do more and more work to give respect to God. They do not believe in taking more holidays due to rituals and festivals. Along with this, the number of rituals and festivals in this religion is also not much due to which its followers have to take a break from their work. Discussing Catholicism, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism in this regard, Weber said that due to the high number of rituals in these religions, socially people are also allowed to take more holidays. On the other hand, people who believe in Protestant religion become successful in earning more money because of taking less holidays. This condition also helps in the development of capitalism.

 

(8) Protestant Asceticism – The concept of asceticism is found in some form or the other in all religions of the world, but the nature of asceticism in Protestant religion is completely different from the form of asceticism in other religions. In various religions of the world, the relationship of asceticism, where detachment from worldly responsibilities or giving up an active life, whereas Protestant religion gives importance to such an asceticism in which a person earns money but takes the asceticism from its accumulation. This means that instead of accumulating wealth, Protestant asceticism emphasizes on using it more and more. This religion considers life to be mortal and full of mistakes. That’s why the Protestant Ethic is that as long as there is life, wealth should be earned by working more and more and wealth should be consumed to get more and more pleasure. This means that Protestant asceticism made a special contribution in increasing the production of things related to the convenience of individuals. Weber states that this ethos of Protestantism is to a large extent equivalent to the essence of capitalism.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Consideration of Cause and Effect

 

After clarifying the above similarities found between the characteristics of capitalism and the ethics of Protestantism, Weber considered the question that which is the cause and which is the result? Weber tried to clarify that due to the influence of religious ethics, economic life became rational in some societies, while in some societies the place of rationality in economic life remained very secondary. In this regard, it can also be said that the characteristics of capitalism itself can also be the reason for the development of Protestant ethics, but such a conclusion is not correct because in societies where Protestant ethics or similar ethics did not develop, there capitalist system Even after the economic development started on the basis of it, it stopped after some time. This clearly means that the ethics of religion are the cause while the development of capitalism is its result. Weber made it clear that the extent to which the ethos of Protestantism had an impact on the development of capitalism cannot be ascertained but it can be recognized as a reason as long as there is no reason for the development of capitalism. Do not find another strong base. 30 To clarify the relation between Protestant ethics and the development of capitalism, Weber told that all the religions of the world have developed in the context of certain ideas. The truth is that the role of the priests and religious leaders there is very important in influencing the attitudes and behavior of the common people. The priestly class influences the lives of common people only on the basis of the ethics of their religion. To prove his statement, Weber took the example of all the major religions of the world and showed how the ethics of these religions have affected the economic system there. For example, Hinduism and Buddhism promoted the concept of transcendental salvation and renunciation of the world, which is clearly visible in the form of a simple economy based on agriculture. The early school also could not develop the motivations necessary for the development of capitalism due to its emphasis on supernatural ethics. Similarly, after the expulsion of the Jews from Babylon, Judaism also remained the religion of the lower classes. 31 As a result, it laid more emphasis on traditionalism, rather than on business obligations. On this basis, Weber clarified that ordinary people in the society are influenced by religion only to fulfill their worldly needs and aspirations. They are not influenced by religion because they have any attachment to any major religious principles. The contribution of religious ethics in the development of capitalism can also be understood with the help of the differences between the ethics of Protestantism and Catholicism and their various influences. The ethics of Catholicism consider a life of labor as a punishment given by God. This conduct does not recognize the accumulation of wealth and worldly prosperity. worldly life in

There is more emphasis on the afterlife than on the real. Also Catholicism believes in a cycle of life in which there is a law of sinning, atoning for it, getting rid of it and committing new sins again. 32 All these dharma are those which are not compatible with the characteristics of capitalism. This is the reason why capitalism could not develop much in countries like Italy, Spain and Babylon, where Catholicism is more influential. On the contrary, in those countries of England, America and Europe, where the influence of Protestant religion is more, there the development of capitalism also took place the most. From this, it is clear that the ethics of Protestant religion are the reason – which contributed to the development of capitalism by “influencing the attitudes of its followers in a special way”. It is concluded that “in searching for the causes of the events of history, it is not my object to substitute purely religious factors for economic ones. It is also possible that economic factors influence religious practices. But before considering any one of these as ’cause’ and the other as ‘result’, it is necessary to study different societies on historical and comparative basis. If considered from this point of view, then definitely religious ethics can be considered as the reason for the development of capitalism.

 

Criticism (Critical Appraisal) – Weber’s main interest in the discussion of the sociology of religion was to clarify how the ethos of different religions of the world had an impact on the economic activities. For this, Weber not only explained the co-relation of religious ethics and economic practices, but also made an effort to clarify the influence of religious ideas on social stratification. He pointed out how Protestant preachers, Confucian scholars, Hindu Brahmins and Yiddish Levites and Prophets each had a distinct lifestyle and how they shaped social stratification and economic activities through their religious practices. Tried to Through this entire discussion, Weber disagreed with Marx and accepted the difference in religious ethics as the reason for the difference in economic systems found in different societies. Even after this, many scholars have disagreed with Weber’s interpretation of religion. Sorokin has written that the way in which Weber has discussed religion to explain the influence of religious ethics on the development of capitalism, it seems that his analysis is not related to the sociology of religion, but is more related to the analysis of culture. . Some other critics believe that Weber’s interpretation makes it appear that the origins of capitalism are due to the ethos of the Protestant religion. * Although Weber has denied this criticism by saying that his aim is not to explain the origin of capitalism but to punish a major reason for the development of capitalism, but it is very difficult to separate these two conditions from each other. . Referring to some critics, Professor Bendix has said that in the interpretation of the sociology of religion, Weber has given prejudiced ideas at many places. It seems that while studying the ethics of different religions, Weber wanted to highlight only those ethics which could prove his hypothesis. At the same time, Weber has discussed religious ethics from the past to present reform movements but did not explain the economic achievements of the past in India, China and Israel, which according to Weber’s concept are based on a developed rationality. were based. It is also true that the development of capitalism in the West was not only the result of Protestant ethics, but it has also been related to the cultural heritage of the West. Some scholars believe that in Weber’s interpretation more importance has been given to semantics than scientificity. Even after all these criticisms, it can be said that the way in which Weber clarified the influence of the ethics of different religions to clarify the nature of economic relations through a developed methodology and deep insight, he definitely made a difference in the sociology of religion. This is an important contribution of Weber. Weber’s entire discussion was based on the use of historical and comparative methods, as a result of which it is not possible to criticize his ideas easily.

 

 

 

 

The Law of Three Stages

 

 

This rule propounded by Comte is related to clarifying the nature of social evolution. Maha Niyama clarifies the belief of Comte in which he says that the development of society takes place only on the basis of certain rules. Comte’s intellectual genius is proved by the fact that he formulated this law at a very young age.

 

Discussing the law of three levels, Comte told that there are three levels of thinking of a person, i.e. in different societies or different periods, the person passing through different nasak stages and moving forward on the path of thinking and development, told that in each society Most of the people’s brain thinks almost in no way, that’s why the thinking of the society in a certain period of time. placed in a state

can go . Na Kost, discussing the Law of San levels, has written that each branch of our being passes through three different theological stages which we may call the spiritual stage, the ab-material stage and the positivist stage. Cost accepts that a person thinks about the great principles of the world based on imagination and scientific (positivist) methods throughout his life. When these different levels of thinking done by individuals turn into the thinking of the whole group, then a special stage of thinking of the whole society is determined. Simplifying the ideas expressed by Kast, Abraham and Morgan wrote that, “A person in his childhood is superstitious about supernatural power and is generally afraid of it. In adolescence, the same person is free from superstitions and becomes aware of the world.” Starts thinking on the basis of principles or accepts social values and moral norms. Reaching old age, the same person becomes practical and starts thinking on positivism or scientific ground.” 18 / These views expressed by Abraham and Morgan If we try to understand with the example of a person’s life, then we will see that in childhood people are interested in those things in which there is predominance of ghosts, pagans or imaginary divine beliefs. In youth, the center of interests of a person has started changing. And they start thinking in terms of love, struggle, economic or political principles, although even after thinking in these practical contexts, the younger generation thinks only on emotional basis, that is why Comte considers this middle stage as metaphysical or semi-metaphysical thinking level. accept as. By reaching old age, the person completely abandons fantasy and sentimentality. Practical thinking starts on the basis of social realities. He takes decisions after considering the consequences of each event or action. This can be called the positivist level of im thinking. Even if the development of thinking is seen in the context of the whole society, this sequence can be seen almost in the form of these stages. From this point of view, it is necessary to try to understand the nature of the three levels of thought propounded by Comte.

 

(A) Theological Stage

(B) Metaphysical Stage

(C) Positivist stage (Positive Stage)

 

 

(A) Theological Stage

 

In this primary stage, a person searches for causal relationships of natural or social events on the divine basis. “Propounded by Comte, this idea can be explained in the words that when a person or a society lives in this first stage of thinking, then it searches for the causes of every event that happens in the society on the basis of divine or religious beliefs. For example, we can say that if a person becomes a victim of an accident and instead of understanding the real reason for this accident, he starts considering it to be divine, anger, fate or some inauspicious omen, then this level of his thinking It will be called theistic or religious level of thinking. It is clear that this level of thinking is imaginary. Even in modern societies, many people can be at this level of thinking. For example, if during the days of examination, the students appear in the examination after reading only a few questions. When the result is out and they fail, some or all of them may think that it was God’s will that they could not pass the exam. starts connecting with God or supernatural power then he becomes divine Or lives at the level of the religious stage. Auguste Comte has classified this level of thinking into three different sub-levels, which are as follows:

 

1 Living Fetishism – Comte’s view is that in this primary state of thinking the individual accepts life in every root or animate object. He believes that certain supernatural forces and the soul present in things influence his behavior and results. For example, if a person gets swept away in a flood and escapes by holding on to the branch of a tree, then in such a situation, if that person starts accepting that the living soul of that tree protected him, then in such a situation we It can be said that the person is thinking in the spiritualistic state of the divine level. Comte says that this level of thinking represents the primitive level of development. Apart from the related ideas, some s, in relation to which many devans not only start believing in different types of magic, but also

 

2 . Polytheism Comte’s statement is that in the second stage from the divine level, the religious thinking of a person starts focusing on some such supernatural beliefs apart from the life of objects and the soul and is related to many gods and goddesses. In this state of contemplation, a person starts believing in some kind of magical powers, but he also knows that all his actions in different fields are the result of the happiness or displeasure of one or the other deity. For example, Lakshmi due to poverty

The wrath of God, the cause of excessive rain or lack of rain is caused by Indra, but the cause of the storm, the wrath of the wind, etc.

 

3. Monotheism In this final stage of geometrical or divine thinking, Comte accepts that after a short time of accepting various gods and goddesses as the cause behind different types of patterns, the individual has this One begins to believe that all his actions are not governed by different Gods and Goddesses but only by the will of one central power or omnipotent God. In this way, when a person accepts only the power of one God as the cause of all natural and social phenomena, then he is under the state of mind of monotheism. According to Comte, in the Theological Stage, these three stages (Antheism, Polytheism and Monotheism) come one after the other. ,

 

(B) Metaphysical Stage

 

This second stage is a transitional stage. According to Comte, this stage of thinking started in Europe after 1300 AD and this stage did not last long. In the elemental state, the belief of abstract powers is also included in the person’s thinking along with the theory. It means that in this semi-tattva state of thinking, the person searches for the working cause of the phenomenon on the physical or real plane, but some influence of belief in supernatural powers also remains in the decisions considered by him. For example, if a person meets with an accident due to high speed driving a scooter, thinks that the cause of the accident was driving the scooter too fast or the brakes were weak, it means that he is thinking on the elemental or material plane. But in the end, if he also starts thinking that he used to ride a scooter every day, but today God had this vision, then in such a situation that level of thinking will be considered as semi-tattva. We can say on the basis of the ideas related to the metaphysical state expressed by Comte. The person or most of the members of the society consider the worldly principles as well as the adhina plane, then they express through the personality that when together they keep in adhi-natural state. Comte is of the opinion that in this stage the person’s rational capacity starts to develop and the person starts seeing some abstract forces or principles as the cause of the events except the theistic thinking. That is why Comte wrote that the metaphysical stage is the stage after the theological stage and before the positivist stage.

 

(C) Positivist stage (Positive Stage)

 

This third level of thinking presented by Comte is known as the positivist or scientific level. According to Comte, “The rise of the nineteenth century is the beginning of the positivist stage in which scientific observation has conquered imaginative thinking.” So does on divine basis nor does he take decision on emotional ground, but in this state the person analyzes events on the basis of observation and test. Commenting on the positivist stage, Comte himself has written that, “In this last stage of thinking, the person’s brain abandons the effort to know the cause-effect relationships of abstract concepts and events related to the origin of the world, etc. And gets involved in the search for the relations of symmetry. In this stage, importance is given to observation and testing. At the level of positivist thinking, the person reaches the conclusion that man is able to obtain facts through observation and classify them. And only by thinking on a logical basis through testing, one can understand the work-cause relationships of various events. Thus, Comte has clarified three different stages of progress of society on the basis of three levels of thinking of human-mind. Comte this Accepting the fact that every society in the world passes through these three stages of thinking, they also believe that all three levels of thinking can be found among individuals in a society at any given time.  . This means that Kost also accepted that every stage of any social thought cannot be found in its complete or comprehensive form. Based on the analysis of these ideas propounded by Bharat Comte, Raymond Aoad Aron) wrote his book ‘ In Main Currents in Sociological Thought, an attempt has also been made to show the different forms of societies in the three stages of development. The analysis presented by him is as follows: Stages of Thinking Intelligence Functionality Affectivity Divine Thinking Level Living Authoritarianism Military Power Egoistic Tendency Polytheism Monotheism Elemental Thinking Level Abstraction Positivist Thinking Level Positivism Industrial Society Altruistic Tendency –

 

It is clear from these ideas expressed by Raymond Ayrton that Comte proposed social change on the basis of three levels of thinking.

A historical outline was presented. On the basis of the above chart, we can say that the different levels of thinking that Comte clarified affect the person on the intellectual, functional and emotional plane. According to Comte, when the level of thinking in society is theistic, then the person is influenced by super-natural beliefs on the intellectual plane. In this stage, military power is found in the society and there is an increased tendency of egoism among the individuals. By reaching the last stage, scientific thinking is generated in the society and the form of societies starts changing from military power or monarchy to industrial societies. In the positivist state, the feeling of a person becomes altruistic. In this way, Comte has not mentioned the levels of thinking only on the intellectual plane, but through this principle, he has also discussed the nature of society and the nature of social relations found between individuals.

 

 

 

 

Three Levels Of Thinking And Social Organization

 

 

The rule of three levels of thinking presented by Comte does not only affect the intellectual level, but Comte also tried to show on the basis of the study of social history that, as the states of society’s thinking changed, so did The form of organization of the society also changed. To be in the form of social organization based on the rule of states of thinking. The change which is discussed by Comte, he calls it as progressive change. accept . The evolutionary change in the form of social organizations, Cost has done on the basis of the forms of the states, which can be understood in the context of different levels of thinking as follows

 

1. Theological Stage and Divine Law

 

August Comte told that when a person thinks on divine or religious basis in the society, then the form of political power in the social structure remains in the form of autocratic monarchy. In this state the person (member of the society) thinks that every living being has been created by God and it is his fate to live in the status or class in which he was born. One thinks that the king is blessed by God and is the representative of God. That is why the people consider themselves as the sons of God and also believe that the order of the king is the order of God (Divine Law). Comte’s statement is that when the public obeys the king’s order as a divine order, then autocratic monarchy is born in the society. In such societies, people stay away from politics and only follow the orders of the king, they consider it their moral responsibility. Modern thinkers of sociology T. Parsons and A. Shills (Talcott Parsons and Edward Shills) have called this motivation as ‘cognitive’ or ‘inquisitive motivation’ in which the person acts only on the basis of belief. Amond and Powell have called such politics based on faith as parachial political culture.

 

(B) Metaphysical Stage and Priesthood

 

Comte has accepted such a situation as a metaphysical level, when a person thinks simultaneously on physical and divine (on both grounds) grounds to know the cause and effect of events. Establishing a relation between this level of thinking and political organization, Comte told that when the society remains in the level of metaphysical thinking, then the priesthood is established at the level of power in the society. In the state of priesthood, the person (member of the society) believes in abstract or theoretical ideas. The person starts thinking this. The king is not the representative of God, but the priest or the rope is the representative of God. When the theory starts to accept the vacant priest as the representative of God, then only then the ideas also start to arise that the work of the state is conducted by God himself through Hat and the power of the king is also under the priest. Comte This state of priesthood was described in political history as the state of the Church State because the Church State was established only after the establishment of the city state in Western Europe. It can also be said on the basis of historical evidence of Indian society that after the primitive states, some such states were established in BC, in which priests dominated. For example, the period of Chanakya and Chandragupta can be placed under priesthood. In the state of Priesthood or Papacy, people start believing that the operation of social and political organization should be based on the advice of the priest, while invalidating the autocratic monarchy. Edward Shills and Talcott Parsons have named this approach as Affective Orientation. Emond and Powell have called the political culture built on the basis of belief motivation as ‘Subjective Political Culture’.

 

(C) Positive Stage and Democracy

 

On the basis of the rule of three levels of thinking, Auguste Comte explained that when society

When a person observes and examines the works of the state on the objective ground, then the form of the political system of the society becomes Praja Tantric. Comte accepts democracy as a better or better political organization. Addressing this level of motivation as ‘Evaluative Orientation’, Edward Shills and Talcott Parsons explained that the organization of society in this level is built on the basis of merits and demerits of different systems. Emond and Powell have mentioned the effect of this appraised motivation on the political system. According to him, when individuals in a society take decisions related to the political system by being influenced by the evaluative motivation, then Participatory Political Culture emerges in the society. August Comte told that in the state of positivist thinking, industrialization of the society starts at a rapid pace, along with which democratic values are established in the society. The above ideas presented by Comte explain the mutual relations between society and the state. On the basis of these ideas, we can say that Comte also indicated the interrelationship of politics and sociology through the rule of three levels.

 

 

 

 

For sociology, one of the major contributions of Dursim is to explain the social nature of a controversial subject like religion by systematic discussion. Durkheim not only clarified the origin of religion in the social context but also gave a new direction to the analysis of religion by describing in detail the social functions of religion. Duham’s views related to the origin of religion and its functions are presented in his last book ‘The Elementary Forms of Religious Life’. Raymond Aron has written about this book, “This book of Durkheim is very important from the point of view that on the one hand, original thinking done on a strong scientific basis is seen in it, and on the other hand, this book is a clear description of Durkheim’s social motivations.” There is proof.” 29 The ideas given by Dukhim in this book can be clarified by dividing them into two main parts. The first part is related to the social theory of the origin of religion while the second part can be considered related to the functions of religion. Before Durkheim, many thinkers like E. B. Taylor, Max Muller and Frazer etc. had explained the origin of religion on different grounds. Tyler (E. B. Taylor) made it clear that the real basis of the origin of religion in every society of the world is animism. This means that the activities and beliefs which were developed to please the soul, religion originated from them only. Max Müller (Max Muller) was a prominent German linguist who, after a detailed study of many religious texts, concluded that religion originated in society as a result of the unlimited power of nature. Maxmüller gave it the name of naturalism and concluded that the belief of a living entity (animatism) in all the root and animate objects of nature is the real basis of the origin of religion. Frazer explained that by religion I mean the satisfaction or worship of those powers superior to man in whom men believe that they control or direct nature and human life. In this way, Fazer also clarified religion as a system of beliefs related to some superhuman or supernatural powers. Durkheim refuted all such ideas and told that complex like religion is based on worship or worship of soul or natural forces. It cannot be the origin of a social fact. The reason for this is that religion is a social phenomenon and its origin is the result of social factors. While giving the definition of religion, Durshim wrote, “Religion is that combination of many beliefs and practices related to sacred things.” It is a system that binds the people related to it into a moral community. It is clear from this statement that the beliefs related to religion are the result of those ideas related to purity which are social in nature. Religion is a powerful basis because it strengthens social organization by uniting people on moral grounds. Thus Durkheim does not consider the concept of God or any supernatural power essential in religion. In this regard, referring to the principle of religion told by Buddha and Confucius, he said that there is no place for God in Buddhism and Confucianism. According to Durkheim, religion The real expression of religion is not God, but society. If God was the reality of religion, there would never have been any change in the form of religion. On the contrary, Satya Rath says that “this system of ideas which is called religion and is the place of writing, The essentials of human life in every age

– has been converting to get energy. This means that the origin of religion and the nature of religion can be understood on social basis only. According to Diem, “Society is the God and the kingdom of heaven is nothing but a glorified society.” Durkheim related religion. Thoughts were presented after studying the Arunta tribe of Australia. when durthis

studied this tribe, till that time this tribe was in its primitive form. In this situation, Durkheim studied the beliefs found in this tribe on the basis of representative sampling to find out the ancient processes. On the basis of his study, Durkheim told that the important essence of religion is that it has divided the whole world into two parts. Out of these we call one part sacred and the other as profane. According to Durkheim, all religions are related to the ‘sacred’ side only. From this point of view, it is necessary that to understand the social theory of religion presented by Dukhim, first of all the concept of ‘sacred’ and ‘ordinary’ should be understood. In the words of Durkheim, the sacred things are those which are protected by many prohibitions while the ordinary things are those which are tried to be kept away from the sacred things by many prohibitions. 36 This implies that the sacred objects represent a collective consciousness or are accepted by the whole group. All beliefs and activities related to these sacred objects organize people into a moral community. The profane, on the other hand, The nature of objects is exactly the opposite of the sacred objects. In the words of Durkheim, “Unholy objects are those whose touching is prohibited and the general feeling is that one should stay away from them even if there is no punishment.” “On the basis of Harana, some scholars believe that faith, customs and practices develop on the basis of religion, which have been clarified by Durkheim as sacred things. The statement of some other scholars. That Durkheim found in nature People’s attitude towards the things that are known is also clarified as sacred things that can lead a person from good to greater good. “‘ Duryom also clarified that the concept of sacred and ordinary things can be different in different religions. He says that the circle of sacred things is not the same for all, but its form is the same in different religions. – May be different from other. He also clarified that all religions of the world are related to sacred things but it does not mean that all sacred things are religious, although all religious beliefs and practices are sacred. Many types of beliefs, practices and activities are born to keep the sacred away from the ordinary or impure. We call the totality of these beliefs, practices and activities religion. It is clear that sacred things or purity The notion of collective consciousness is a reflection of the collective consciousness and that is why the individual begins to consider himself subordinate to it. Many such festivals and religious rituals are still seen in primitive societies, which explain the influence of collective power. Originated from the notion of purity Ho Durkheim explained on the basis of totemism how the beliefs give rise to religion. Describing totemism as the primary form of all religions, Duim made it clear that on the basis of beliefs related to totems, the sense of distinction between ‘sacred’ and ‘ordinary’ started in primitive societies. From this point of view, the difference between the holy and the ordinary can be understood only in the context of the meaning of the totem and its characteristics. What is a totem? Explaining this, Duim said that totem can be just a piece of animal, plant, shiny stone or wood like ordinary objects, which is accepted by a group as a sacred object. The power of the object which is accepted by the people as totem and the beliefs related to it remain generation after generation even though the person dies after some time. Dukhim told that some people believe so. Worship of Totem is also a symbol of worship of God, but such a view is not accepted. ” According to Duchy ” the totem is purely impersonal . It does not have any history or name and beliefs related to it are expressed in many actions. “Defining totem from this point of view, he re-wrote totem is a belief in a mystical or sacred power or a principle that prescribes punishment for the disobedience of prohibitions and involves the moral responsibility of the group. “Dursheim again made it clear that” we should not understand that totem is a religion of beliefs related to some animal or some specific images (images), but it is an unknown and impersonal power which is accepted by all who believe in it together. There are many such characteristics included in the totem which explain the beliefs related to it in the form of religion. The characteristics of totemism are as follows:

 

(a) The substance or creature which a tribe or group considers as its totem, it begins to consider itself as a mysterious, sacred and supernatural relationship. In the context of Indian tribals, this feature told by Durkheim can be easily understood. The Toda tribe living in the Nilgiri Mountains of South India consider the buffalo as their totem. The Toda people believe that on the day of the great deluge, I ask for a buffalo.

Aa had climbed the Nilgiri mountain and a toda was hanging from its tail. In this way buffalo is the first ancestor of the Toda tribe, which these people consider as a sacred object and perform many such practices, which are considered religious practices.

 

(b) It is believed that by virtue of its mystical associations the totem protects the group. Durkheim states that it is believed in the Arunta tribe that their totem protects the group as well as indicates future calamities. Similar beliefs related to totems are found in many other tribes like Arunta tribe.

 

(c) The feelings of the members of a group towards the totem include fear, reverence and respect. That is why it is prohibited to kill or harm the totem. People who believe in a particular totem prefer to get its picture tattooed on their body and on some special occasions, special reverence is shown towards the objects related to the totem. In order to maintain the sanctity of the totem, many prohibitions become prevalent in the group and those people who violate these prohibitions are punished in the group.

According to the mystical relation that a tribe has with a totem, the concept of purity is born in the society.

 

On the basis of these characteristics, Durvim told that a special morality develops on the basis of sacred beliefs. This morality affects the nature of collective consciousness. In this way, the totem itself represents the moral life of the group, so as a social fact, the totem itself should be considered as the original source of all religions. The nature of the totem is social, not supernatural. From this point of view also, the basis of religion is not any supernatural power but the society itself. On the basis of appropriate interpretation of totem, Dursheim made it clear that in Australia’s Arunta tribe, different groups on the basis of totem consider certain specific beliefs and activities as sacred and remain related to each other and stay away from events considered unholy. Live In this tribe, on the occasion of social festivals, when all the members of a gotra (people who believe in their origin from a totem) gather at one place, then each member finds his personal power very secondary in comparison to the collective power. . As a result, a person bows down before the collective power. A feeling of fear, reverence and devotion towards the power of the group begins to arise in his mind. It is clear from this that collective consciousness is included in the concept of purity and that is why individuals accept the system of beliefs arising out of purity as religion. Elucidating this, Durkheim wrote that “one world (society) is one in which a person’s daily life is passed in a monotonous manner but the other world is one which he cannot enter unless he is related to something extraordinary.” It should not be done by power in which it should not forget its existence. First world simple. (Profane) and the other world is sacred. In the discussion of 38 social facts, Durkheim made it clear that every general social fact does some useful work for the society. Durkheim also considered religion as a general social fact and mentioned its many functions for the individual and the society. He told that religion increases social unity by increasing collective consciousness in the society, it strengthens a moral system in the society; Encourages the process of integration, makes a special contribution to maintaining the social structure, protects the existence of the moment righteous person by preserving useful social values and increases social participation. These functions of religion also explain its social nature. Thus it is clear that on the one hand, all the functions of religion are related to binding the people of the group in moral bonds, and on the other hand, through these, the unity and strength of the group increases. In this way, religion is not a discriminating factor but a major basis for increasing social organization. This fact explains the social nature of religion.

 

 

 

 

Criticism

 

By clarifying religion as a social fact, Durkheim presented a more practical approach, but many scholars have severely criticized Durkheim’s views on religion. First of all, it is said that Durkheim based his views on religion on the Arunta tribe of Australia and assumed that it is a tribe that represents ancient processes. The reality is that the Arunta tribe cannot be considered a tribe representing ancient processes. This means that when the basis of Durkheim’s study is not based on reality, then his conclusions cannot be considered correct in any way. Goldenweiser says that Durkheim’s conclusion that totemism is the main basis of the origin of religion cannot be believed. There are many such societies in the world in which the existence of religion and totem are separate from each other. Secondly, there cannot be much confidence in the statement that it was only on the basis of the distinction between the ‘sacred’ and the ‘ordinary’ that such a complex phenomenon as religion developed. If the sons of the tribes

Durkheim’s conclusions begin to look even more implausible when the distinction between the sacred and the ordinary is made in Darbh.

Durkheim’s conclusions begin to look even more implausible when the distinction between the sacred and the ordinary is made in Darbh.

Durkheim’s conclusions begin to look even more implausible when the difference between the sacred and the ordinary is made in the context.

The reason for this is that the tribes in their primitive life could not give a systematic form to religion by analyzing such a complex phenomenon as ‘purity’. Thirdly, in the origin of religion, Durchim has given more importance to society or social factors than necessary. Durkheim’s statement that ‘society is the real god’ seems very exaggerated. ‘ It is very difficult to agree with the equality that Durvim has clarified between society and God to prove the authenticity of his statement. In the end, on the basis of psychological processes also, the views related to religion do not seem to be correct. To say that ‘the origin of religion is only the result of the impulses of the crowd or group’, is a wrong approach. The social functions of religion that Dukhim has mentioned, their nature is also not all-pervading and eternal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Principles Of Religion

 

Anthropological theories of religion have been primarily concerned with examining the content of different concepts of the supernatural prevalent in different societies at different times. Earlier anthropologists also tried to trace the development of religion from crude to developed forms. Recent theories focus on outlining the functions of religion.

Animism. The earliest anthropological theory about primitive religion, trying to trace and explain its origins, was given by Tylor. He said that although the origins seem to be many, there is only one idea behind it, the belief in the soul (anima); Hence the name animism for this doctrine.

Tylor’s conjectural arguments were as follows: primitive man had some experiences; In his dreams he was engaged in various kinds of activities even while sleeping; He met his dead ancestors in dreams and had hallucinatory experiences about them and other beings while he was conscious; He heard the echoes of his own voice; He saw his reflection in ponds, lakes and rivers; And he failed to separate himself from his shadow. Even as he was having these incomprehensible experiences, from time to time something deeper must have had meaning and forced the mind of primitive man to think; People must have died. This devastation must have been a great intellectual challenge. What exactly had happened that brought a sudden stop to a person’s verbal and non-verbal actions?

 

He looked the same, but he was not. There must have been some unseen thing in her which must have escaped, must not have been seen, due to which she must have died. It was thus that the belief in an unseen thing, or power, arose that kept people alive when they were in them and left them dead when they left their bodies. Such a thing or power is called ‘soul’. But how is it that one who sleeps, like death, was not death, and how is it that people have all these different experiences in dreams, and when awake, hear echoes and see shadows and reflections? Certainly, says Tylor, primitive man must have thought that man must have two souls; a free soul that could go out and experience, and a embodied soul that would die if it left the body. The former may represent and be associated with breath and shadow, the latter with blood and the head. Primitive man would have come to the conclusion that when the soul permanently leaves the body, the person concerned dies; And his soul became a ghost or spirit. The spirit must have apparently appeared to be immortal as they could dream about people who were long dead. This uncertainty as to whether the soul has left the body temporarily or permanently may be one reason for the practice of ‘green’ and ‘dry’ double funeral rites found among some contemporary primitive peoples in India and elsewhere. Is. The first, the green funeral, takes place immediately after death and the second, the dry funeral, is celebrated after a few days when all hope of the soul’s return is abandoned; and the second funeral is often the occasion of a more important ceremony, e.g. Between Toda and Ho. Yes it is called Jangtopa; When the drums beat, Topam Jangatopam, they celebrate the union of the soul with the impersonal force which they call Bonga. Green funerals in Kota are called pasdau and take place shortly after the actual death has taken place. The second dry funeral, called Verldau, is held some time later and for all those who have passed away after the last dry funeral. Dry funeral rites symbolize the complete severance of the connection between the dead and this world and their entry into the other world.

Therefore, Tylor believed that awe and reverence for these abstract and non-material spiritual beings is the origin of the earliest form of primitive religion. These spiritual beings are not under our control, and therefore, they must be harmed, and so that they can provide help. Thus, ancestor worship was the earliest form of worship and the earliest temples were tombs. Animism includes such a belief in the role of spiritual beings in human life; This is a type of polytheism. Tylor believed that religious beliefs and forms underwent an evolutionary development over time and progressed from polytheism to monotheism.

It has been complained that Tylor has treated primitive man as a philosopher and

Rationalised, which he certainly is not, and never would have been. Tylor had no field experience and did not know that primitive man leads an active life and that thin is not given so much

Posted as his theory. Instead, he observes and participates in life and nature; He’s not rational about it. As a result, other explanations were sought. But this did not suggest that Tylor’s theory was entirely wrong. It lays more emphasis on the holistic aspect of primitive religion, such as the belief in the soul and spirits. Tylor’s evolutionary sequence leading from polytheism to monotheism, however, has received no evidence and therefore does not have many adherents.

Animatism and Manism. Tylor’s early critics stated that animism was a later development in the history of religion. He postulated a pre-animistic phase when religious belief consisted primarily of the belief that everything has life and is animate. Prominent among these writers were Preece and Max Müller. The name of the latter is associated with the principle of naturalism discussed below.

More recently, Meret developed a special form of animist theory which he called animism. Meret stated that the entire religious life of primitive peoples arose out of their belief in a certain incomprehensible, impersonal, non-material and impersonal supernatural power, which resides in all things, animate and inanimate, that exist. world. It is more or less beyond the reach of the senses but manifests itself in the form of physical force or such other excellence that man can perceive in himself, in others and even in the things around him. It can vary in intensity depending on the degree to which it is present on a person or thing, but in essence it is always the same. Such a set of beliefs was called animatism or manism by Maret after the term used by the Melanesians to designate this force. Majumdar’s description and analysis of the concept of bonga among the Ho (given below) are consistent with Meret’s theory of primitive religion. Some North American tribes refer to this power as orenda. It is known elsewhere as Aren and Wakua.

But this interpretation is also somewhat open to the main criticism leveled against Tylor, namely that it invests primitive peoples with an aptitude for thinking and rationality that they do not in fact possess.

Naturalism. Reference has already been made to the German theory of naturalism associated with Max Müller. He said that the most ancient form of religion must have been the worship of the objects of nature; And evidence in support of such a view comes from archaeological excavations carried out in Egypt and elsewhere. It is believed to arise as a result of a ‘diseased’ mind of awe or love and reverence towards objects of nature that invest lifeless things with life and all the forces associated with life. This error of mind, according to this theory, stems from faulty language. Such linguistic errors as the sun rises and sets, or lightning rains, or trees bear flowers and fruits, lead to a belief in some power inherent in the sun, thunderbolt, trees, etc.

In so far as it is held that the objects of nature were worshipped, no difficulty arises; The evidence in favor of such a practice is overwhelming. But any claim, or explanation given, of such worship being the oldest form of religion, is not credible. There is no evidence to show that different concepts follow linguistic expressions about the same. In contrast, linguistic expressions may follow some pre-existing idea.

The merit and usefulness of these various theories emerge when taken together, for each of them expresses some essential truth about primitive religion.

Functional Theory Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown have given a functional explanation of primitive religion. Malinowski explains in the context of the Trobriand Islanders that religion is closely related to various emotional states, which are states of stress. For example, some of their magical and religious practices are centered around fishing expeditions. These are the results of a state of fear that gives rise to a possible disaster upon them. Similarly, hatred, greed, anger, love etc. can arise due to various circumstances in human life. These conditions create stress and tension and if they are allowed to remain for a long time, all actions become ineffective. A person has to act individually; And normal functioning is not possible in an emotionally disturbed state of existence. In such a situation, religion is used as a tool of adaptation; Its purpose is to free the human mind from its stress and tension, i.e. it is cathartic in its action. In other words, the function of religion is to bring about a readjustment between the human and the supernatural in the turbulent state of existence. It is a tool to secure mental and mental stability in a person’s life.

Radcliffe-Brown takes a different stand. They say that the function of religion is not to remove fear and other emotional tensions from the human mind, but to create in it a sense of dependence. He says that, ultimately, the survival of the group is more important than that of the individual; One

and if

If the latter has to sacrifice something, it is in his own interest to do so, because individual existence is not possible without social existence. However, the individual does not always realize this, and seeks to chart a personal course of action. If everyone did this there would be complete confusion and chaos and no organized activity would be possible. Adherence to a model of behavior is essential in the context of social survival; and also the expectation of support in the matter of socially accepted conduct from which it follows. Therefore, the function of religion is to create a dual sense of dependence on society and thereby achieve the individual’s concordance with social norms, the ultimate goal being social survival. The function of religion is the contribution it makes to the overall activity that is designed to perpetuate society.

Here again we can say that the truth lies in the combination of the views of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown. Their viewpoints may appear opposing, but they are not; They have to be taken as supplements. The individual is as important to the society as the society is to the individual.

The sociological interpretations of Radcliffe-Brown and Malinowski are partly derived from Durkheim’s theory of religion. Durkheim says that religious concepts are born and conceived when we find social groups gathering together for festivals and other social gatherings. On such occasions social life is at its height, and impresses upon the human mind the transcendence and omnipotence of the group. It is conceived as the source of all that man has and all that man is. Religion is the recognition of the moral and material superiority of the collectivity over the individual.

Durkheim defined religion on the basis of the parts of which it is composed. These parts are faith and rites; The former constitute the static part of religion and the latter the dynamic part. Mere beliefs make up theology. In religion we have only sacred beliefs; Beliefs that refer to gods and deities that are actually symbols of the society. These beliefs are put into practice by the performance of rites. Unholy beliefs and practices are not sacred and are not part of religion; They are magic. They are indicative of personal ego and are anti-social and hence impure.

 

 

 

 

Types of Religious Organizations

 

Religions organize themselves – their institutions, practitioners and structures – in a variety of fashions. For example, when the Roman Catholic Church arose, it borrowed many of its organizational principles from the ancient Roman military, for example turning senators into cardinals. Sociologists use different terms, such as church, denomination, and sect, to define these types of organizations. Scholars also know that these definitions are not static. Most religions transition through various organizational stages. For example, Christianity began as a cult, transformed into a sect, and exists today as a church.

Fig. 15.4. How would you classify Mennonites? As a cult, a sect or sect? (Photo courtesy of frankieb/Flickr)

Cults, like sects, are new religious groups. In popular usage, the term often has pejorative connotations. Today, the term “cult” is used interchangeably with the term new religious movement (NRM). However, almost all religions began as NRMs and gradually grew to greater sizes and levels of organization. In its pejorative use, these groups are often disparaged as being secretive, exerting excessive control over the lives of members, and dominated by a single, charismatic leader.

Controversy exists as to whether some groups are cults, perhaps because of media sensationalism over groups such as the polygamous Mormons or the Peoples Temple followers who were killed in Johnstown, Guyana. Some groups that are controversially labeled as cults include the Church of Scientology and the Hare Krishna movement.

A sect is a small and relatively new group. Most of the well-known Christian denominations in North America today began as sects. For example, Presbyterians and Baptists protested against their original Anglican Church in England, just as Henry VIII protested against the Catholic Church by creating the Anglican Church. From “protest” comes the word Protestant.

Occasionally, a cult is a breakaway group that may be in tension with the larger society. They sometimes claim to return to “fundamentals” or to contest the veracity of a particular theory. When membership in a denomination increases over time, it may develop into a sect. Often a sect begins as an offshoot of a sect, when a group of members feel that they should break away from the larger group.

Some sects developed without developing into sects. Sociologists call these established sects. Established sects, such as the Hutterites or Jehovah’s Witnesses in Canada, fall halfway between sect and sect on the sect-cult continuum because they have a mixture of sect-like and sect-like characteristics.

A sect is a large, mainstream religious organization, but one that does not claim to be official or state-sponsored. There is one religion among many religions. for example

Here, the Church of England, the Presbyterian Church, the United Church and Seventh-day Adventists are all Christian denominations in Canada.

Here, the Church of England, the Presbyterian Church, the United Church and Seventh-day Adventists are all Christian denominations in Canada.

Well, in Canada the Church of England, the Presbyterian Church, the United Church and Seventh-day Adventists are all Christian denominations.

 

The word ecclesia, originally referring to a political assembly of citizens in ancient Athens, Greece, now refers to a congregation. In sociology, the term is used to refer to a religious group to which most members of a society belong. It is considered a nationally recognized, or official, religion that maintains a religious monopoly and is closely associated with the state and secular powers. Canada does not have an ecclesia by this standard.

One way to remember these religious organizational terms is to think of cults (NRMs), denominations, sects, and churches as representing a continuum with increasing influence on society, with cults being the least influential and churches being the least influential. are most influential.

types of religions

Scholars from different disciplines have tried to classify religions. A widely accepted classification that helps people understand different belief systems considers what or whom people worship (if anything). Using this method of classification, religions can fall into one of these basic categories,

,

Religious Classification What/Who Are Divine Examples

polytheism multiple gods ancient greeks and romans

monotheism single god Judaism Islam

atheism no god atheism

animism nonhuman beings (animals, plants, natural world) indigenous nature worship (Shinto)

Totemism Human-Natural Existential Relationship Ojibwa (First Nations)

 

 

 

 

Religious Classification	What/Who Is Divine	Example
Polytheism	Multiple gods	Ancient Greeks and Romans
Monotheism	Single god	Judaism, Islam
Atheism	No deities	Atheism
Animism	Nonhuman beings (animals, plants, natural world)	Indigenous nature worship (Shinto)
Totemism	Human-natural being connection	Ojibwa (First Nations)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Note that some religions may be practiced or understood in different categories. For example, the Christian notion of the Holy Trinity (God, Jesus, Holy Spirit) defies the definition of monotheism for some scholars. Similarly, many Westerners view the many forms of the divinity of Hinduism as polytheistic, while Hindus may describe manifestations that are a monotheistic parallel to the Christian Trinity.

It is also important to note that in every society there are atheists, such as atheists, who do not believe in God.

 

 

 

 

sociological approach to religion

From the Latin religio (reverence for that which is sacred) and religare (to bind, in the sense of an obligation), the word religion describes various systems of belief and practice that people determine to be sacred or spiritual (Durkheim 1915). ; Fashing and Dechant 2001). Throughout history, and in societies around the world, leaders have used religious narratives, symbols, and traditions in an effort to give greater meaning to life and to understand the universe. Some form of religion is found in every known culture, and it is usually practiced publicly by a group. The practice of religion may include celebrations and festivals, gods or deities, marriage and funeral services, music and art, meditation or initiation, sacrifice or service, and other aspects of culture.

While some consider religion to be something personal because religious beliefs can be highly personal, religion is also a social institution. Social scientists believe that religion exists as an organized and unified set of beliefs, practices and norms centered on basic social needs and values. Furthermore, religion is a cultural universal found in all social groups. For example, in every culture, funeral rites are performed in some way, although these customs differ between cultures and religious affiliations. Despite the differences, ceremonies marking a person’s death have common elements, such as the announcement of death, the care of the deceased, disposition, and the ceremony or ritual. These universals, and the differences in how societies and individuals experience religion, provide rich material for sociological study.

In studying religion, sociologists distinguish between what they refer to as the experience, beliefs, and customs of a religion. Religious experience refers to a firm belief or feeling that one is connected to “the divine”. This type of communication can be experienced when people are praying or meditating. Religious beliefs are specific ideas that members of a particular faith hold to be true, such as that Jesus Christ was the son of God, or belief in reincarnation. Another example of religious beliefs is that different religions follow certain creation stories. Religious rituals are behaviors or practices that are required or expected of members of a particular group, such as a bar mitzvah or confession (Barken and Greenwood 2003).

History of Religion as a Sociological Concept

In the wake of 19th-century European industrialization and secularization, three social theorists attempted to examine the relationship between religion and society: Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx. He is one of the founding thinkers of modern sociology.

As stated earlier, the French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) defined religion as “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things” (1915). To them, the sacred meant something extraordinary—something that inspired wonder and that seemed to be linked to the concept of the “divine”. Durkheim argued that society “has religion” when there is a separation between the profane (ordinary life) and the sacred (1915). A rock, for example, is not sacred or profane just because it exists. But if someone builds it into a headstone, or someone else uses it for landscaping, it has different meanings—one sacred, one profane.

Durkheim is generally considered to be the first sociologist to analyze religion in terms of its social impact. Above all, Durkheim believed that religion is about community: it binds people together (social cohesion), promotes behavioral stability (social control), and helps them through life’s transitions and tragedies (meaning and purpose). Provides strength to people during By applying natural science methods to the study of society, he held that the source of religion and morality is the collective psyche of society and that the harmonious bonds of social order arise from common values in society. He argued that these values needed to be maintained in order to maintain social stability.

Religion then provided varying degrees of “social cement” that held societies and cultures together. Faith provided a justification for society to exist beyond the mundane and partial explanation of existence as provided in science, even to contemplate an intentional future: “For faith is first of all action.” One is inspiration, whereas science, no matter how far it is pushed, always remains at a distance from it. (Durkheim 1915, p. 4)

31).

But what if religion collapses? This question led Durkheim to believe that religion is not just a social construct but something that represents the power of society: when people celebrate sacred things, they celebrate the power of their society. Huh. By this logic, even if traditional religion disappears, society will not necessarily disintegrate.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Magic, Religion And Science

 

 

 

Religion

Magic and religion are intertwined. Tyler: Religion is belief in the supernatural. The idea of religion is closely linked to magic and science.

 

There are many elements of religion. These elements are related to magic in one way or another. Before we discuss their relationship, we will briefly describe the elements of religion.

 

 

 

elements of religion

1) Social anthropologists, especially the British ones, have produced a large amount of data on primitive religion. The data pertains to primitive and aboriginal peoples of India, Africa and Australia. However, American anthropologists have shown less concern over primitive religion.

 

1. There are certain elements of religion that also characterize the religion of many tribal groups:

2) Durkheim has described rituals as an important element of religion. Ritual is a practice of religion, or rather the functional part of religion. Conceptually, ritual is distinct from religious events or beliefs. Beliefs are thoughts or ideas and rituals are their implementation. On the empirical plane of any religion, primitive or otherwise, the villager cannot be separated from religion. In The Structure of Social Action, Parsons explains the relationship between religion and rituals in the following words:

3) The fundamental difference between religion and ritual is that between the two categories of religious phenomena – belief and rite – the former is a form of thought, the latter of action. But the two are different, and at the heart of every religion. The rituals of a religion are inconceivable without knowing its beliefs. Although the two are inseparable, there is no particular relation of priority, the point being the distinction at present. Religious beliefs, then, are beliefs related to sacred objects, their origin, behavior, and significance to man. Rites are actions performed in relation to sacred things.

4) If a Santhal of Bihar offers a hen to his local deity, it is a ritual according to his belief or idea that the deity should be appeased to remove the evils imposed on the community. Thus the sacrifice of chicken is a ritual and belief in the power of God is thought. We see that in the empirical situation both belief and ritual work together.

 

5) stimulation of emotions

6) Certain feelings and emotions are also aroused in order to gain consciousness about the existence of religion or belief. Fear of God, being afraid of doing bad things, giving charity, living a pious life are all patterns of behavior that evoke feelings for a religion.

7) However, sometimes emotions are also aroused to create panic among the followers.

 

 

 

8) faith

9) The building of religion rests on the framework of beliefs. Earlier social anthropologists defined religion only in terms of beliefs. Tylor argued that without faith there can be no religion. And, what is important about faith is that it cannot be reasoned with; This cannot be proved empirically. It is just a matter of understanding.

10) In recent anthropological literature, the belief element in religion has been strongly criticized. It is said that religion has to be understood from a sociological and logical point of view.

11) Belief does not exist because it does not stand the test of reality.

 

 

 

12) Organization

13) In the early history of religion we have evidence to say that there were some organizations to regulate the activities of a particular sect. Max Weber, who has been called the founder of modern sociology, observed that all of the world’s great religions—Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and Hinduism—had some form of organization. The function of the organization was to regulate the activities and functioning of the religion. Christianity has its own church which acts as a central body to hold Christians together. Similarly, Hinduism has its Char Dham where Shankaracharya acts as the head and controls the activities of the Hindus.

 

 

14) Symbols and Myths

15) Every religion has its own symbols and myths. For example, church, temple, mosque, flag and a specific type of dress and worship are symbols of different religious sects. Similarly, there are mythological stories related to every religion. Tribals who believe in animism have their own totems which are reflected in animals, plants and trees. The origin of clans is also described in mythology.

 

 

 

16) Taboo

17) To differentiate themselves, each religious faith has its own taboos. These prohibitions are related to food habits and lifestyle. For example, Jainism claims that its followers should not eat after sunset and that they should be strictly vegetarian. The behavior patterns of the followers are also determined by the religion.

18) A few more can be added to the above list of elements of religion. It must be remembered that these elements undergo changes and transformations at the local level. New interpretations in elements with the functioning of various social and cultural processes

Also joins. Some new elements also appear.

 

 

 

 

Magic

 

20) If we do a quick survey of research in sociology and social anthropology, we find that no empirical study on magic has been done by social anthropologists during the last few decades. Satchidananda has produced an extensive bibliography on rural studies, and to our surprise there have been no studies on the effects of magic among Indian tribes. Similarly, the Peoples of India project does not mention anything about it. On the other hand, social anthropology textbooks invariably have a chapter on tribal magic. Clearly, there is a huge difference between what we find today and what is given in the textbooks. It is incomprehensible who authors textbooks

21) Devote many pages to vivid accounts of tribal magic. Perhaps, the fault is not the authors of the textbook. The onus is on the creators of the curriculum to include magic.

22) Magical practices in India go back to medieval and pre-capitalist societies. Magic has a unique role to play in the development of our institutions. There were Malinowski, Evans-Pritchard and Fraser growth charts. It is this evolutionary perspective that inspired these anthropologists to write about tribal magic. Religion too, like any other social institution, has evolved through a long process of evolution. Magic was probably the first stage in the evolutionary stage of the development of religion. Apart from the tribals, the non-tribal groups who were living in isolation also had a strong belief in magic.

23) The allopathic system of treatment had not come into existence then, and people were constantly falling prey to various diseases. They were living in unfriendly environment. There was famine, famine, pestilence and people had no other option but to resort to witchcraft.

24) Malinowski and Fraser, who worked among the dramatists, reported on the role of magic in Aboriginal society in the mid-19th and early 20th centuries. Malinowski’s Trobrianders and Evans-Pritchard’s Azandes have now begun to modernize. All of them have accepted the modern medical method.

25) In India, ‘civilized’ castes also adopted magical practices and in some cases, these proved to be more sophisticated than those of the tribals.’ When the Somnath Temple (Gujarat) was attacked, the Hindu kings invited a group of Brahmins to perform magic so that the attack could be neutralized. Even today, we see that when political leaders or elites of high status are struggling with death, Brahmins and Tantriks are called upon to chant Mrityunjaya – a clear example of belief in superstitions. The point we want to emphasize here is that magic was a specialized art practiced only by theatres. The entire subcontinent believed in magical practices. If Fraser and Malinowski refer to tribal magic, they are only discussing the tribal situation that was found not only in India but throughout Europe during medieval and pre-capitalist times.

 

 

What is magic?

 

27) It is a term that refers to a particular type of behavior, not necessarily religious, that results from the acceptance of beliefs in one form or another of supernaturalism. If people believe in animism, they act so that certain things can be done with the help of spiritual beings they believe to exist. “If people believe in mana or animatism, they may act in somewhat different ways to achieve desired results with the help of impersonal types of power that they believe can be tapped. They also believe that certain things will inevitably happen because power always operates in the same way. If people believe in a pantheon of gods, one or the other of ‘those gods will be appeased, sacrificed, others desired will be struck in some way to accomplish objectives. However, the essential characteristic of magic is that its processes are mechanistic and act automatically if one knows the proper formula. Religion and magic are alternative techniques. Sometimes complement each other.

28) Anthropologists have defined magic on the strength of their experience in the field, although ‘some definitions are not directly related to empirical observations’. However, we will try to define magic in a systematic way here. Let’s start with John Lewis. He says:

29) Magic is a technique of coercion using belief in supernatural power. Sympathetic or mimetic magic holds that an action performed on something standing in for a person or thing will have the desired effect on the real person or thing.

30) Malinowski defines magic very precisely as, “Magic is a set of purely practical actions, performed as a means to an end.”

31) According to Herskovits, magic is an important part of culture. People often use prayer as a form of worship. A prayer uses words to bring about the favorable intervention of the forces of the universe in the affairs of men. Magic stands opposite to prayer. This contrast was first made by Evans-Pritchard between the Azandes

Magic was discussed. Herskovits drew his understanding of magic from Evans-Pritchard and Fraser. His understanding of magic is explained below:

32) Charms and spells are widely employed tools in magic. A specific power, placed to reside in a specific object, is set into operation by the utterance of a formula, which may itself conduct the power. The enchantment of magic takes innumerable forms. It often includes some part of the object on which its power is exercised, or some element which, because of external resemblance or internal character, achieves the desired result.

33) Although the definitions of religion given by anthropologists differ for their

34) m and the content, the basic idea is more or less the same. The tribals believe that there is a supernatural power. No one can compete with it. It is universal. This supernatural power is endowed with ample power which is both positive (white) and negative (black). The person who wants to master the art of witchcraft pleases the supernatural power and gives him some power. The supernatural may thus be obliged to part with some of its power by means of some magical display. These performances differ from society to society.

 

 

Theoretical Perspectives on Religion

 

36)  Functionalists believe that religion satisfies several important needs of people, including group unity and companionship. (Photo courtesy of James Emery/Flickr)

37) Sociologists often apply one of three major theoretical approaches. These views provide different lenses through which to study and understand society: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and critical sociology. Let us see how the scholars who apply these models understand religion.

38) practicality

39) Functionalists argue that religion serves a number of functions in society. Religion, in fact, depends on society for its existence, value and importance, and vice versa. From this perspective, religion serves several purposes, such as providing answers to spiritual mysteries, providing emotional comfort, and creating space for social interaction and social control.

40) In providing the answer, Dharma defines the spiritual world and spiritual forces including divine beings. For example, it is “How was the world created?” It helps to answer questions like “Why do we suffer?” “Is there a plan for our lives?” and “Is there any life?” As another function, religion provides emotional comfort during times of distress. Religious rituals bring order, comfort, and organization through shared familiar symbols and patterns of behavior.

41) One of the most important functions of religion, from a functional point of view, is that it creates opportunities for social interaction and the formation of groups. It provides social support and social networking, offering a place to meet others with similar values and a place to seek help (spiritual and material) in times of need. Furthermore, it can promote group cohesion and integration. Because religion can be central to many people’s concept of self, there is sometimes an “in-group” versus “out-group” feeling towards other religions in our society or within a particular practice. At the extreme level, the Inquisition, the Salem witch trials, and anti-Semitism are all examples of this dynamic. Finally, religion promotes social control: it reinforces social norms such as appropriate styles of dress, abiding by the law, and regulating sexual behavior.

 

 

 

 

42) Critical theorists view religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social inequality. For example, the Vatican has immense wealth, while the average income of Catholic parishioners is low.

 

43) According to this perspective, religion has been used to support the “divine right” of oppressive kings and to justify unequal social structures such as India’s caste system.

44) But mankind has a way of responding to perceived injustice and religions losing relevance. One of the fastest growing sectors of global Christianity are evangelical churches, which are growing stronger not only in North America, but also in South America. This growth has come at the expense of the Catholic Church, which has long been a bastion of power in Latin and South America.

 

45) Latin America refers to countries in the subregion of the Americas where Romance languages, mainly Spanish and Portuguese, are spoken. As anthropologist Cristina Vital of the Institute for the Study of Religion in Rio de Janeiro explains,

46) [Evangelical] churches adopt less rigid rules than the Catholic Church … They adopt customs and values we see in our society today, such as the importance of financial well-being, to reach this prosperity The Importance of Entrepreneurship, The Importance of Discipline (Feiser & Alves 2012).

47) At the same time, evangelical and fundamentalist Christian denominations often introduce foreign belief systems that are homophobic or undermine family planning and anti-AIDS strategies. The persecution of homosexuals in Uganda through the Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Act (2014) was prompted by the influence of American evangelicals in the country (Gentleman 2010).

48) On the contrary, religion

The power of Weber’s theories of sociology to help understand that history was demonstrated to contemporary public and academic audiences in the publication of a seminal work by Norman Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel, 1250–1050 was brought

 

49) BC (1999). Gottwald clarifies this connection even more clearly in his book The Politics of Ancient Israel, which was a response to the question posed in Weber’s 1921 classic Ancient Judaism: “The Jews were a pariah people with a highly specialized [ Hosted by larger societies] How did it develop into a speciality? (Gottwald 2001, Weber 1921). Even critics of Gottwald’s view such as Kenton Sparks offer alternative Weberian interpretations for the existence of early Israel:

50) Israel’s existence can equally be attributed to the religious innovations of Kingdom-era mono-Yahvistic prophets, who interpreted foreign oppression as the hand of Jehovah and thus Israel’s religious beliefs and ethnic distinctiveness preserved in contexts where it might otherwise have been destroyed (Sparks 2004 p. 126).

51) There is still a debate over the usefulness of Weberian theory in the explanation of social behavior, including thousands of years of social behavior. Weber still has relevance in the sociology of religion.

52) Critical theorists are concerned with how many religions promote the idea that one should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely determined. It is argued that this power dynamic has been used by religious institutions for centuries to keep poor people poor, teaching them that they should not be concerned with what they lack because their “true “The reward (from the religious point of view) will come after death.

 

53) Critical theorists also point out that those in power in religion are often able to dictate practices, customs, and beliefs through their own interpretation of religious texts or through declared direct communication with the divine. In more recent history, George W. Bush’s statement that God told him to “end the tyranny in Iraq” (MacAskill 2005). A key element in the Enlightenment project that is central to the critical perspective is therefore the separation of church and state. Public policy that is based on irrational or rational religious belief or “revelation” rather than on scientific evidence undermines a key component of democratic deliberation and public scrutiny of the decision-making process.

 

54) Feminist theorists focus on gender inequality and promote leadership roles for women in religion. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

55) The feminist perspective focuses specifically on gender inequality. In the context of religion, feminist theorists claim that, although women are usually the ones to socialize children into a religion, they have traditionally occupied very few positions of power within religions. Some religions and religious sects are more gender equal, but male dominance is the norm for most.

 

56) But this claim also comes under careful scrutiny by feminist scholars. For example, those following the seminal work of The Gnostic Gospels by Ellen Pagels have been instrumental in rediscovering the place of women in Christian history (1979). Marilyn Stone’s When God Was a Woman (1976) traces the pre-history of European society back to female-centred cultures based on fertility and creator goddesses. It was not until the invasions of the Kurgans from the northeast and the Semites from the south in the fifth millennium BCE that hierarchical and patriarchal religions became dominant.

57) Symbolic Interchange Path

58) Rising from the concept that our world is socially constructed, symbolic interactionism studies the symbols and interactions of everyday life. For interactionists, beliefs and experiences are not sacred unless individuals in society regard them as sacred. The Star of David in Judaism, the cross in Christianity, and the crescent and star in Islam are examples of sacred symbols. Interactionists are interested in what these symbols communicate. Additionally, because interactionists study face-to-face interactions between individuals, a scholar using this approach may ask questions focused on this dynamic. The interactions between religious leaders and practitioners, the role of religion in common components of everyday life, and the way people express religious values in social interactions—all of these can be subjects of study for an interactionist.

59) It is important to recognize that the above theoretical models each provide only a partial description of religious beliefs and practices.

 

 

 

 

Elements Of Magic

 

Magic’ is an art and it has to be acquired. The practitioner has to work hard to develop the skill of magic. Some of the important elements of magic are given below:

 

(1) Tylor has classified ‘practices of magic’. These practices are scientific. The businessman works as a scientist. For example, Ty

Lur says that things that look alike are put in a category. Just like the color of jaundice is yellow and so is the color of gold. Jadoo establishes a connection between the two because of their similar colour. Bohannon disagrees with this theory. He says that no logic of association applies to magical practices.

(2) Magic is person-oriented. A person sees something in a particular way; This belief works in their magical practices.

(3) According to Malinowski, mantras have an important role. Mantras have the power to mimic natural sounds and hence chants are vital for the successful outcome of magical practice. Second, the magician explains the current situation in the same language and orders the fulfillment of his wishes. Third, spells mention the names of ancestors who have imparted magical skills.

(4) while chanting mantras the magician continuously performs certain actions; For example, he waves his hands, makes faces and gestures. These physical activities are believed to strengthen the power of the spell.

(5) The magician observes some abstinence in the matter of diet and sexual relations on the days when he engages himself in magical practices.

(6) A magical practice cannot be performed at the magician’s discretion. There are certain days which are considered suitable for this. For example, the last day of the dark half of the month or the new moon is best suited for learning and practicing magic. Again, Dussehra days, especially Navratri, are good for magical practices.

(7) Malinowski says that discipline is most important in the practice of magic.

The first thing that is necessary for a magician is to clarify the objectives of magic. He has to handle them very carefully. A slight mistake could have cost the magician himself. This is the reason why the magician leads a miserable life in his old age.

(8) According to the purposes of the magical practice, the magician makes physical gestures to strengthen his magic.

Fraser and Malinowski have found interesting examples of magical practices among the aborigines of Australia and Africa. Nadel also mentions magic in his description of the Nupe religion. Evans-Pritchard gives a detailed account of magical practices and its elements among the Azandes.

 

 

 

principles of magic

Some anthropologists have developed theories of magic. Tylor specifically distinguished magic from religion. He has created three basic principles of magic which are as follows:

(1) Magic pertains to a type of behavior that is based on common sense.

(2) Whatever is done by nature can also be done by magic. In such a situation, people are unable to differentiate between the working of nature and magic.

(3) If the spell fails, it is believed to be due to faulty chanting of mantras or some lapse in the routine life of the practitioner.

Thus, Tylor’s theory of magic makes two important points: (i) magic is an ideology, and has to be relied upon; and (ii) magic is based on logic. If magical practice is carried out on these two principles, the results will always follow. Ivan Pritchard believes that magic and religion are found in all societies.

Magic, science and religion have influence in all societies. But the extent of effect is ‘not the same’. For example, if a society lives at a lower level of culture such as tribal and backward classes, the scope of magic and religion will be larger. The larger members of this society would rely heavily on magical practices and rituals. However, if a society has a high level of culture, there will be less room for magic and religion; And more space for science. In other words, advanced societies have a prominent place in science while backward societies practice more magic and religion.

Tylor’s theory of magic has been corrected by Frazer. In the literature on social anthropology, Tylor is best known for two of his classic works: a summary of what Tylor propounded as theory in these books.

Ken Up for discussion and analysis by Fraser. Paraphrasing Tylor, Fraser gives the principle – the law of sympatry – which states that tribal peoples view material things as sympathizers between two similar things. Sympathy is of two kinds: (i) on the basis of external resemblance, for example, between the color of jaundice and the color of gold; and (ii) on the basis of contacts. Based on these two sympathies, Frazer has given three principles of magic: (1) the principle of sympathy, (2) the principle of similarity and

(3) Principle of contact.

Fraser’s theory of magic holds that when an Aborigine practices magic, he does it as he has learned it, and is not concerned with the principles of magic—only with the result. . This is why Frazer regards magic as a semi-art and a semi-science. Magic has two basic purposes: first, some objectives are achieved through magic, and second, some unwanted events can be avoided. The first purpose is called sorcery and the second sorcery.

There is no doubt that Tylor has given some of the fundamental principles of magic which are to be found among the aborigines. These core principles have been further elaborated, reinterpreted and retextured by Fraser. Another important contribution to this field is credited with the division into witchcraft and sorcery.

His hypothesis is that magic and religion provide political cohesion to society. Fraser and Durkheim both see magic and religion as sources of political unity.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Types Of Magic

Students of social anthropology often distinguish between two types of magic. The first type named by Fraser is called imitative or homeopathic magic, while the second is called transmissive. Description of two types of magic

Herskovits writes: Both are organized to operate according to a principle

‘Like to like’ is also called ‘principle of sympathy’. An example of ‘contagious’ magic is when a hunter drinks the blood of his kill to gain his cunning or his strength. ‘Imitative’ magic can be found, say, in the performance of a dance in which the mock killing of an animal was performed to ensure success in the hunt.

The above two types of magic neither constitute the entire field, nor are they absent from some of the practices that are customarily given the term ‘religious’.

Yet another typology of magic is that of ‘black’ and ‘white’. Black magic has some evil intentions. According to it, the victim has suffered some injuries. The second type, white magic, is beneficial in its intent. There is a lot of emphasis on black magic in the social anthropological literature. “The reason for this is twofold. The challenge for the investigator is to uncover what his informants are least willing to reveal. Even more than this, however, is the dramatic appeal of black magic to the public. Once there is a willingness to talk about it Once established, informants will focus on the subject with gleeful and exuberant detail, and the ‘white’ magic will be discarded.

The horror shows presented on television by different names depict many practices of black magic. If revenge is to be taken, the sorcerer makes a clay idol of the victim and gives him various kinds of pain. In turn, these pains are experienced by the sufferer. We have innumerable examples of magic from different parts of the world. However, examples of white magic are very few. This category of magic has also expanded to include many indigenous medicines. The surprising thing is that white and black magic is practiced even among literate people. However, with the increase in literacy and education, many magical practices are falling out of vogue.

witchcraft

Disease and difficulties are common to mankind. People have a list of remedies to overcome these physical ailments or social crises. The premises for the secular practice of medicine, unaffected by supernaturalism, are therefore found in all societies. Such knowledge, which was certainly empirical and not analyzed scientifically, was generally available and used by all. However, there were numerous sufferings that people in primitive societies believed to be caused by factors of a non-material nature. Cures for such ailments required magical procedures, such as returning the poisonous power injected by an evil shaman or sorcerer to its victim. Individuals who had acquired or inherited or procured supernatural power and procedures based on these were said to help individuals who were ill from these non-physical causes.

In all societies, shamans were only part-time workers who were engaged in treating people or performing certain ceremonies, for which their power also fitted them. The practice of medicine among people in primitive societies is thus everywhere characterized by some really useful instruments and drugs, but by erroneous theories of the causation of more deadly diseases and resorting to the supernatural.

for subsequent treatment.

Every society has its own experts who treat diseases with their skills. These are called witchcraft, shaman, ojha or bhopa. Shamans or exorcists are those who have the power to detect witchcraft and heal the person who has been cast. They claim to be able to see into the future, avoid harm, transform themselves, and accomplish supernatural tasks.

Evans-Pritchard, who worked among the Azandes of southern Sudan during 1926–36, gave a detailed account of witchcraft and divination. In the Azande tribe, any misfortune can happen, and is usually, attributed to witchcraft. The Azande take it for granted. The witch sends what she calls the spirit or soul of her witchcraft to harm others. The victim consults a tantrik or soothsayer to find out who is hurting him. This can be a long and complicated process. When the culprit is exposed, he is requested to withdraw his malicious influence. If, in case of illness, he does not do so and the person dies, the relatives of the dead person may in future take the matter to major and exact retribution, or they may make a counter to witchcraft as it is today. To destroy.

The practice of witchcraft is also found among the Indian tribals. A witchcraft can injure anyone by any mental act and gradually lead to his death. This power originates from a certain substance in the witch’s body. Witchcraft can explain all unfortunate events. Along with the monstrous life of the village, it

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Fishing, agricultural activities play their part in Yaik life. Thus witchcraft plays a major role in the overall life of the tribal community. For example, if the maize crop is diseased, it is considered witchcraft. If the milch cow dries up, it is due to witchcraft.

The phenomenon of witchcraft has been explained by various reasons. Although there is a natural cause, but why did the accident happen and why did it happen to that particular person? One person was injured after being hit by the bull. Why this man? And why this bull? Witchcraft is a causative factor in the production of harmful events in particular places and in relation to particular persons at particular times. If a tree falls and kills a man, that is natural but why did it fall when he was passing by.

An oracle is consulted to determine if a person is casting a spell on another person. One of the most popular types of divination is the poison divination. The chickens are taken to the bush and given a small amount of poison. If the fowl remains alive, the man is declared a witch. Those who practice witchcraft are not magicians who heal diseases. There are other types of specialists who counteract magic. A witch doctor is an astrologer who exposes witches and a magician who thwarts them. He also acts as a leech or doctor.

 

 

 

Magic And Science

 

Tylor was the first to describe magic as a science. The question that troubled him and aroused his curiosity was that when there is no scientific basis for religion then why do the tribals follow it? The question was reasonable and demanded an answer. Tylor observed that the aborigines themselves knew that magic was not true, yet it had an important place in their lives.

He considered answering the question:

(1) Magic is related to common sense behavior.

(2) The one who does the magic is actually the nature too.

(3) even when magic fails to perform a certain action, there is no fault in it; Something must have gone wrong with the practice of magic.

(4) If magic hurts something, there is always counter magic.

(5) The success stories of magic far outweigh its failures.

Tylor argues that the systematic development of magic takes the form of science. The essence of their argument is that magic operates on the principles of nature. Nature runs by positivist laws, so it is also a science.

Fraser does not consider magic to be a pure science. However, he believes that magic is a quasi-science. According to him, magic is based on some logic and rules. Ordinary people do not understand that witchcraft is practiced on rules that are similar to science. People only see the applied side of it. They do not think about the principles that guide the magical performance. For a magician, magic is only an art, he does not even understand that these are principles that are based on complete science. In principle magic is based on abstract laws.

Malinowski has worked among the people of the Trobriand Islands. They have generated a rich trove of data, although they have notarized the question of the scientific nature of magic. He takes a functionalist perspective and states that magic exists in society; People practice it because it has certain functions to fulfill. However, he acknowledges that the methods of magic and science are, if not identical, in fact similar. Magic and science both work on the logic of cause and effect.

Evans-Pritchard was a like-minded person of Tylor and Fraser. Despite their differing approaches all three agree on the following hypnosis

Other :

 

(1) There is some supernatural power. This power has two faces. One of its mouth is welfare and provides salvation to humans. Its second form is ugly and harmful. Science investigates the benevolent face while the ugly face casts a spell. Science and magic are two aspects of supernatural power.

(2) Ruth Benedict argues that magic is not a science. The findings of science are verifiable, whereas the findings of magic are beyond any verification.

(3) Continuous experiments are done in science. It has made tremendous progress during the last several centuries; Instead of registering any progress, magic is becoming increasingly oblivious. At least people show their belief in magic.

(4) The basis of science is pure logic while the principal basis of magic is faulty.

 

 

 

 

 

Magic And Religion

 

What is the relationship between magic and religion? The distinction comes with beings having more ore less personality, but most religious rites contain examples of magical symbolism, and a good deal of magic is involved in the context of spirits. In fact, it is not really possible to make a clear distinction between magic and religion.

There is a fundamental difference between religion and magic. First, the rituals of a religion are public and collective. They affect people as a whole, absorbing all their energies for the duration of magic-religious activity. This gathering of large number of people for sowing, harvest feast and similar festivities brings the entire community in a mood of joy and harmony. It gives serious and collective expression to the social sentiments of an organized community, on which the constitution of society depends.

magical-religious rites

Not for the sake of self but to ward off or remove the coming evil. There are certain rites in magical practices related to hunting, which help in killing the animal easily. Sometimes, the whole hunt is performed in a ritual dance, with part of the animal’s skin. This clearly shows that magic is related to religion. There are field reports by Malinowski and Leach that establish that magic is used for the successful attainment of goals. For example, Malinowski reports that when a fisherman floats on ocean currents, he casts a spell and believes that his boat will not meet any tragedy. Trobrinders also practice magic to win the heart of their beloved. Durkheim, the founder of the sociology of religion, sees no difference between religion and magic. For him, both practices are meant to achieve certain objectives.

 

 

 

 

Some aspects of religion: the sacred, the profane, the church, cults and sects, priests, shamans.

structure

Durkheim is called the father of sociology of religion. He argues that there are certain elements of religion and these elements are determined by the society. For them religion is objective, it is a reality. He further says that religion is not the product of the individual. It is the child of the society. When we discuss the sacred, the profane, the church and the cult, we refer to Durkheim and say that these aspects are created by society. In other words, those things which are sacred to society are sacred in religion; The things which are impure to the society are impure to the individual. Things that are respected are sacred to Hindus. These are offered to the gods and goddesses. The impure has a use value, the bicycle, the engine, the factory has a use value for society. th

They are utilitarian. Durkheim thus describes all things in the world into the sacred and the profane.

 

 

 

Durkheim’s religious views

Theoretically the Forms Elementaires contain two distinct though interrelated elements, a theory of religion and an epistemology. The principle of religion will be considered first, because it forms the inevitable connecting link between what has gone before and epistemology.

Durkheim has two fundamental distinctions from which Durkheim stands apart. The first is pure and profane. It is a classification of things into two categories, for the most part tangible things, often though by no means always material things. However, the two classes are distinguished not with reference to any intrinsic properties of objects, but with reference to human attitudes towards them. Sacred things are things set apart by a peculiar tendency of respect which is expressed in various ways. They are believed to possess specific qualities in the form of special powers; Contracting with them is either particularly beneficial or particularly dangerous, or both. Above all, man’s relations with sacred objects are not taken as a general matter, but always as a matter of special approach, special respect and special precautions.

 

To anticipate the outcome of the latter analysis, sacred things are distinguished by the fact that humans do not treat them in a utilitarian way, certainly not use them as means to ends that have intrinsic value. Based on the qualities they are adapted to, but separate them from these other unholy things. As Durkheim says, profane activity is par excellence economic activity.

 

The approach of calculation of utility is antithetical to respect for sacred things. What is more natural from a utilitarian point of view than for an Australian to kill and eat his totem animal? But since it is a sacred object, that is precisely what it cannot do. If he does eat it, it is only on formal occasions, totally separate from the workday, that he seeks satisfaction. Thus sacred things, except precisely in this utilitarian relation, are protected from all kinds of taboos and restrictions. Religion is related to holy things.

The second fundamental distinction is that between the two categories of religious phenomena—beliefs and rites. The first is the form of thought, the second of action. But the two are inseparable, and central to every religion.

The rituals of a religion are inconceivable without knowing its beliefs. Although the two are inseparable, there is no particular relation of priority—the point being the distinction at present. Religious beliefs, then, are beliefs related to sacred objects, their origin, behavior, and significance to man. Rites are actions performed in relation to sacred things. Religion for Durkheim is a ‘unified (cohesion) system of beliefs and practices relating to sacred things, separate and taboo, united in a moral community called a church, by those who follow it. The last criterion is the one that will be considered later, since the process by which it is derived cannot be understood without further analysis of the other criteria.

In fact Durkheim introduced the concepts of the sacred and the profane in his book The Elementary Forms of the Religion’s Life, first published in 1912. This is perhaps the most influential interpretation of religion from a functional point of view. According to him all societies divide the world into two categories: the sacred and the sacred.

Holy. Sometimes impure is also called unholy. Religion is based on this division. Durkheim writes:

Religion is based on this division. It is a unified system of beliefs and practices relating to sacred objects, i.e. things that are set apart and forbidden.

Durkheim defines the concept of the sacred as the primary forms of religious life:

By sacred things one should not understand only those individual things that are called deities or souls, a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a house, anything in the world can be sacred.

For Durkheim there is really nothing about the special properties of the pebble or the tree that makes them sacred. Therefore, sacred things must be symbols, they must represent something, to understand the role of religion in society, and establish a connection between sacred symbols and what they represent.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1) Church, Cult and Sect

2) It was Max Weber who initiated the formulation of categories for the analysis of religious organization. It is important to note that these categories were formulated specifically in the context of Christianity. Their applicability to the analysis of other religious traditions is problematic.

3) Max Weber discusses the dichotomy between church and sect in The Protestant

4) Ethnicity and Spirit of Capitalism. Differentiating between churches and sects, Weber writes:

5) The fundamental difference between a church, which was ‘a kind of trust’

6) dedication to supernatural purposes, an institution, necessarily involving both the just and the unjust…’ and the ‘Church of the Believers’, which saw itself as ‘only a community of reincarnated individual believers, and only This.

 

7) In other words, focus not as a church but as a denomination.’ Since this distinction was made in his discussion of Baptists, Mennonites, and Quakers, it is clear that Weber attached significant importance to membership doctrine as a key feature of sects, and he emphasized the sectarian provision that ‘only adults who have personally have received their faith from, they should be baptized.’ Much of the later debate about the development of the sect has focused on this feature; And some of the other features that Weber attributed to sects as opposed to churches have also been employed in later research.

 

8) the observation, for example, that separation from the state is characteristic of some churches as well as of sects, and thus cannot be said to be distinctive features of sects, and thus cannot be said to be a distinctive feature of sects, One seems closely linked to the numeracy approach of later sociologists. Similarly, the shared though differently interpreted concept of extra-ecclesiastical nulla salus held by both the Church and the Sect, which Weber pointed out, has been effectively adopted by David Martin to be the opposite of the Sect, which to some extent Tak has a unique ethos. The isolation from the world described by Weber in communal groups has been extensively analyzed in the work of Brian Wilson.

 

 

 

9) Sect

10) Sampradaya is a part of the wider religion. Like Buddhism has two sects Hinayana and Mahayana and Hinduism has Shaiva, Shakta and Vaishnava. That’s why there are different sects in Christianity.

11) Weber noted that within each self-governing circle of a sect, an exceptionally strict moral discipline was practiced to maintain the purity of the entire community. This appears to be equivalent to Wilson’s argument that sects have totalitarian authority over their members, but Weber was concerned to draw a parallel with a different type of religious organization. After pointing out that the discipline of an ascetic sect is far more rigorous than that of any church, he continues: ‘In this respect, the sect resembles another sectarian feature, which is not peculiar to churches, and It is dominated by elements. A denomination contrasts strongly with the professional ministry of a church – this emphasis is related to the different definition of charisma by each organization. The requirement that sect members should practice fraternity in their dealings with one another is likewise a logical extension of the observation that each sect is based on the primacy of a local community of committed believers.

 

 

 

creed

12) Anthropologists have worked on the concept of cult. A cult is a set of practices and beliefs of a group in relation to a local Go. In sociology, it is a small group of religious activities whose beliefs are usually synergistic, esoteric, and individualistic. Although it is related to the concept of a sect, the cult is not in Western society associated with mainstream Christianity. As a scientific term, it is often difficult to separate the idea of a cult from its derogatory significance to common sense and does not have a precise scientific meaning. Cultural practices appear to cater to the needs of marginalized sections of urban, middle-class youth. Cultural membership among young people is usually fleeting. Spasmodic, and irregular. Research societies, cults have sprung up in the post-war period, and are often associated with the counter-culture.

13

) Steve Bruce refers to ‘mysticism’ as a tradition within Christianity apart from church and denomination. Bruce describes it this way:

14) Unlike other forms it (cult) was a highly individualistic expression, varying with individual experiences and interpretation.

15) For Bruce, this corresponds to the idea of a cult, which is:

16) A loose-knit group organized around some common themes and interests, but lacking any clearly defined and exclusive belief system.

17) A cult is more individualistic than other organized forms of religion. Because it lacks a definite principle. Cults tolerate other beliefs and indeed their own beliefs are often so vague that they have no concept of heresy. Cults often have customers rather than members, and these customers may have relatively little involvement with any organization. From them he learned the fundamentals of the beliefs around which the cult is based.

 

 

 

 

Concept of priesthood/priesthood

 

1) in the most common parlance. Priest is a religious functionary whose role is to administer an established religion – to celebrate traditional rituals, practices and beliefs. Two essential features characterize them, namely, regular cult, and rootedness in a religious institution. Weber explains that “it is more correct for our purpose to judge

2) to the diverse and mixed manifestations of this phenomenon. The specialization of a particular group of individuals in the continuous operation of a cult enterprise, permanently associated with particular norms, places, and times, to establish as a significant feature of the priesthood. and belonging to specific social groups. The first characteristic implies that, “the priest’s main function … is religious … Worship as an expression of religious experience, however primitive or rudimentary in form, is the priest’s chief concern.

 

3) He guarantees the correct performance of ceremonial acts of worship.” The priest mediates between God and humans; he not only interprets the divine will but regulates and strengthens the relationship between God and his fellow humans. The basis of his existence and authority is constant and regular communion with the divine.” The priesthood requires regular liturgical observance and a definite theology. Weber reiterates that there can be no priesthood without a cult, although there can be a cult without a particular priest because of the rationalization of metaphysical ideas and especially religiosity, morality is missing in the case of a cult without priests.

4) Another essential characteristic of a priest is his association with an organized religion and legitimacy by the religious authorities. An extended, cross-cultural description of priest is “any religious expert who acts religiously for or on behalf of a community. The priest resides in a religious organization as a representative of that establishment, and his actions mediate between traditions and peoples.” Unlike other related role types, “the priest serves at the altar in the temple or shrine, as a representative of the community in its relations with the deities and the sacred order that has been conferred, depending on the status and the sacredness and him upon his consecration, fulfilling the attendant taboos.

 

5) Bendix paraphrases Weber, and reiterates that the priest functions in a sacred tradition, and that “even when the priest has a personal charisma, his function is legitimate only on the basis of the regular organization of worship”. Is.” Regarding the Levitical priests of Judaism, Brown explains that “even if a man was born into a priestly tribe, he was to be ordained to the priestly office.” Often a priest is the official representative of a religion. Greenwood, confirming that the priest is called as a witness, says, ‘The priest is required to be personally the representative of all the other members of the jocular church within which he (the priest) presides over the wider community’ does. ,

6) Preparation and education play an important role in the priesthood. The purpose of systematic training of priests is to help them develop the faculties and abilities necessary for the performance of the liturgy. It is centered in the development and maintenance of the piper’s dialogue with the marks, which results in the mana or ‘purity’ of the priests. While ascetic practices are meant to bring the body and will under the necessary control, meditation and prayer are meant to prepare the soul, and instruction and study to train the mind. The history of the development of religions is evidence that great systems of knowledge and schools of learning of various disciplines have emerged in association with training centers for priests.

 

7) The rational training and discipline of priests is distinguished from a combination of partly “awakening education” using irrational means and aimed at reincarnation, and partly training in the purely empirical lore of magicians .

8) Priest and related role types

9) The identity of the priest can be better understood by separating it from other related role types. The priest is different from the magician. The word shaman comes from the Siberian Tungus noun saman which means “he who excites, moves, raises.”

As a verb it means “to know in an ecstatic way.” The shaman is a person with a “high degree of nervous excitement” (often an epileptic). He is a charismatic61 transcendent personality – one who in a state of ecstasy actually displays the presence of the Holy. Vaston LaBarre writes, “The real difference between a shaman and a priest is who and where God is, inside or outside.”

10) The priest is not a magician. In today’s society, a magician is one who

11) Makes visible objects disappear, or makes invisible objects appear as a means of entertainment. But this has not always been the case. According to Wach, magic is meant to compel the mark to give what is desired, while religion, with which the priests are associated, is meant to present and worship the divine power upon which man feels dependent. Is. The magician’s authority is proportional to the fulfillment of the expectations of his clients. His reputation is less firmly established and more dependent on his professional ‘success’ than that of the Prophet. On the one hand Weber sees in many religions

12) Including in Christianity, the concept of priesthood includes a magical qualification. But on the other hand, he agrees with Wach that the priest is a worker in a regularly organized and permanent enterprise concerned with influencing the gods through worship, in contrast to the individual and occasional efforts of magicians, who magically They force the deities. means. While the priest works in the interest of his organization, the shaman is self-employed. Furthermore, the professional equipment of specialized knowledge, fixed doctrine, and professional qualifications of priests bring them in contrast to magicians, prophets, and other types of religious functionaries who manifest in miracles and revelations based on personal gifts (charisma).

13) The priest is different from the prophet. A prophet is one who confronts the powers that be and the established way of doing things, while claiming to be taken seriously on religious authority. Weber finds that “personal calling is the decisive element that distinguishes the prophet from the priest. The latter claims authority based on his service in a sacred tradition, while the prophet’s claim is based on personal revelation and charisma. It does not It is a coincidence that almost no prophets have emerged from the priesthood … The priesthood, in apparent contrast, bestows salvation by virtue of its office. Emphasizing the uniqueness of the prophetic call, Wach states, “The organ, the instrument, Or the consciousness of being as the mouthpiece of the divine will is characteristic of the self-interpretation of the prelate. and messenger prophets who address their demands to the world in the name of God. Naturally these demands are moral, and are often of an active ascetic character. Vernon observes that prophets usually appear during periods of turmoil, when established value systems are being challenged. They are rarely welcomed in peacetime.

14) According to Nisbet, the prophet and the magician have certain common features, namely occult powers and a perception of importance in times of collective crisis or personal hardship. But they are different.

15) But whereas the central function of the prophet is to interpret sacred tradition and to deprive the population at large of the means of gaining access to the deity, the central function of the shaman is to effect exceptions to the natural order … The Shaman’s Role belongs to the doer – but what he does is reserved for times of crisis and activities that are affected by risk or uncertainty of outcome. His role is the result of the special knowledge he holds for himself and his legitimate descendants. knowledge that he reserves for himself and his legitimate descendants.

16) It is not feasible to make clear distinctions between these role types or even to categorize them in ways that are universally acceptable to all religions. At any rate, Wacht locates the uniqueness of the priesthood in the broad nature of the priests’ activities. “The institution of the priesthood is bereft of individual religious charisma of the great kind, but the priesthood is the most widespread of all exclusively religious activities in the history of man. The sociological implications and import of this activity are correspondingly far-reaching.

17) A healthy, or sometimes even unhealthy, competition is observed in some religious traditions between these role types. It may occur between two different types of persons, for example, priest and prophet, or it may also occur within one person who is challenged with a role-set or multiple roles. In Buddhism a tension exists between holy men (monks), charged with the cultivation of wisdom, mental concentration and moral virtue, and priestly ritual specialists. The Sanskrit and Pala words, bhikshu and bhikku, meaning mendicant or mendicant, do not imply the role of a priest. Weber talks of a similar problem between monotheism and Hierocratic charism in Christianity. “…the implicit tension emerges, the more genuine monasticism is independent of institutional charisma because its own charisma is immediate to God.” The combination of the three role types—priest, king, and prophet—leaves room for a similar conflict in the role type of the Christian priest today.

18) Development of the priesthood

19) It is not easy to trace the exact evolution of the role of priests in various religions, the main difficulty being the priests

And there is a cross-cultural use of the terms priesthood. Has been applied to a range of events around the world, often with European connotations and linguistic derivations. Furthermore, the division of labor that existed among the priestly class in early societies is not dear enough to us. However, a look at hi

20) The story of religions readily brings us some common features and stages in the process of the development of the priesthood.

21) The Journey from Natural Priesthood to Professional Priesthood in Religions

22) The origin of the priesthood is said to be attributed to the universal need for the mediation of superhuman help felt by mankind in the struggle for life. In its development we note two phases, namely the phase of the natural priesthood and the phase of the professional or regular priesthood. There are indications to confirm that originally all invoked their own deities. In the early times, the worship was confined to the deity members of the kin and later to the people of the tribes.

 

23) Then the heads of families or tribes most spontaneously performed worship, which was later confined to the members of the tribes, and later to the members of the tribes. The heads of families or tribes then most naturally assumed the priestly role because they, as the oldest and most experienced members of the family, were closest to the ancestors. increased, a regular priesthood was introduced. As not everyone is equally skilled in mediation, professionals are expected to have expertise, greater knowledge and power to secure a better outcome.

 

24) But to a large extent the two forms remained intertwined. Gradually those skilled in interpreting the wishes of the gods and practicing magical arts won the confidence of the people and gained a certain eminence and formed a special class. Certain classes of people who had unmistakable links to the priesthood—those who, when in a state of ecstasy, were believed to be inspired by the gods, who served in famous temples or sanctuaries, who performed miracles—were considered to be members of a regular priesthood. He was a pioneer. When rituals lost their simplicity, a professional priesthood became even more necessary.

25) the priestly functions are exercised between the same groups by their chiefs or leaders; Such as the father in a family, the head of a clan or tribe, the king of a nation or people. With the increasing development and differentiation of social organizations and stratification, major cult functions of the leader became associated with particular individuals or professional groups, and as a result, professional magicians, astrologers, and even soothsayers emerged in more differentiated “primitive” societies. Come ,

26) [These functions are referred to as quasi-priestly.] With the increasing complexity of cultural and social conditions, professional differentiation occurs, and a professional priesthood appears.

27) The history of many religions testifies to the evolution of priesthood from natural to regular or professional form. For example, in the case of Hinduism, Dr.

28) Radhakrishnan says that,

29) The original Aryans were all of the same class, each a priest and soldier, merchant and tiller of the soil. There was no privileged order of priests. The complexity of life led to the division of classes among the Aryans. Although in the beginning everyone could offer sacrifices to the gods without anyone’s mediation, the priesthood and the aristocracy separated themselves from the proletariat…to learn wisdom, poetic and speculative gifts, the priest, or before a set Became representative in worship under the title. In view of their noble function of maintaining the tradition of the Aryans, this class was freed from the necessity of struggle for existence… The Brahmins are not priests pledged to uphold fixed doctrines, but an intellectual elite which is relegated to molding the high life of the people.

30) It is pertinent to remark here that priesthood and cult have not been essential qualifications in all religions at all times. In the case of early Buddhism, for example, the possibility of a cultural priesthood was remote. “Buddhism had no order or ritual of sacrifice requiring the services of an officiating priest who had expert knowledge of the importance of the methods and rites. In fact Buddhist scriptures mention instances in which the Buddha himself appointed Brahmin priests. had scoffed at ritualistic practices. But already during its early history in China, when faced with the strong cultural attributes of Confucianism, Buddhism adopted cultural practices. Hinduism teacher-brahmin, priest-brahmin and superman Talks about Brahmin.

31) Vocational priesthood exists in two forms, namely hereditary and vocational. According to the former, the priesthood is the privilege of a particular family or tribal lineage. Jewish Levitical priests, Hindu Brahmin priests and Zoroastrian priests are some examples. Vocational priesthood based on recruiting candidates from its pool of promising young members

32) devotional, intellectual and moral qualities. Professional priests distinguish themselves by special vestments, long hair, distinct language, and ascetic rules such as sexual control and fasting. Institutionalization as well as elements like initiation rites and training

increased in importance. Whereas in the past most religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity – reserved the priesthood for male members, more recently some sections of religious membership such as the Anglican Church have advocated for the priesthood of women. While many religions throughout their history have found themselves moving from priestly celibacy for various reasons, the Latin Rite of Roman Catholicism is the strongest in favor of it in contemporary times.

33) As history develops, in the great world religions, representatives of the priesthood are organized into a highly complex structure in which a more or less differentiated hierarchy of groups with their various activities corresponds to the priestly hierarchy. In the beginning the divisions were on simple grounds such as natural groups (clan, tribe, people), local groups (village, city, district), and political groups (nation). Later, priests became associated with the formation of particular religious organizations, temporarily unified by the personal charisma of the priest leader alone, or organized as institutional units such as parishes.

34) Sacred Vs Secular Powers

35) According to the nature of the governance of a country, Weber identifies three types of relationship between secular and sacred powers in the history of the world. While in the first type, a ruler is legitimized by priests, in the second the high priest is also the king, and in the third, the secular ruler exercises supreme authority even in sacred matters. Thus while some countries had kings who were also priests, some other countries had priests who were also kings. Even in Islam, where unlike most other religions, there is no class of priests or clerics,

36) In the strict sense of the word, we find that there was a time when the roles of Imam (leader of prayers in worship rites in mosques) and ruler of the place were assigned to the same person.

37) When a governor was appointed in a province, he was also appointed as an Imam to lead the prayers, and this practice continued for a long time. In fact, leading the prayers (imamat) in Islam was as great an honor as the monarchy, and the two offices, the office of spiritual leader and the office of temporal leader, were for a long time combined in one person. As the ruler himself was the Imam at the centre, so were his governors at various provincial headquarters. There was no place in early Islam for the priest and the current mullah.

38) According to Weber, in hierarchical hegemony, the priestly authority seeks dominance at the cost of political power. Often the latter is presented as an inevitable evil, permitted by God because of the sinfulness of the world, and which believers must forsake but avoid. Sometimes it is even presented as a God-given tool for the subjugation of anti-church forces.

 

39) “In practice, therefore, the hierarchy seeks to turn the political ruler into a vassal and deprive him of independent means of power…” Meanwhile, the hierarchy makes every effort to protect itself: an autonomous administrative machinery, a tax system (tithes), legal forms (endowments) to protect church holdings, bureaucratization of administration, and the development of the charisma of the office at the expense of personal charisma.

40) In Weber’s mind, the extreme opposite of any form of hierarchy is caesaropapism—the complete subordination of priests to secular powers. Here religious relations are only a branch of political administration. Political rulers fulfill these obligations either directly or with the help of state-maintained priestly professionals. Caesaro-papism is nowhere to be found in its purest form, as a rule the priestly charisma reconciles with the secular power, either tacitly or even through a concordat. Overall, the general picture of the relationship between the two painted by Weber is that of a cold war.

41) “State and society everywhere have been deeply affected by the struggle between the royal and the priestly, between the military and the temple nobility. This struggle did not always lead to open conflict, but it did give rise to distinctive features and differences.. .”

42) According to Aberbach, even though there are important differences between the sacred and the secular, the history of religion testifies to the close parallels between the two: while even in its secular forms, charisma has a religious dimension, traditional religious charisma rarely Be devoid of political and other importance. “Political charisma draws on the language, sentiment, and even ideological convictions of religion. Charismatic religious leadership is no less

43) With politics. Devotees of the religious charismatic are inspired not only by his message but also by his political acumen and military success. The major religions of the ancient world were all official state religions. He was educated in religious schools, and had the outstanding qualities associated with religious leadership: Washington’s personal humility, Garibaldi’s austerity, Robespierre’s propensity for solitude and meditation. He concluded that, “the many parallels between religious and political charisma mean that in practice the association between both charismatic political leaders and figures of religious authority – priest and prophet, savior and messiah – although differing in intensity, is of little surprise.” It’s a matter. Pand

years, and the ‘righteousness’ of government that reflects the involvement of the modern state in the ‘deeper’ issues of human life, and the way in which state-organised societies become, to varying degrees, objects of worship and ‘deeper’ identity. has gone.

44) It is challenging to note here that in the development of most religions, if not all, the priesthood was always limited to cult activities. Priests perform a number of other functions: directly or indirectly related to liturgical functions. He is the custodian of traditions and protector of the sacred knowledge and techniques of meditation and prayer. He is the guardian of the sacred law corresponding to the cosmic moral and ritual order.

 

45) As the interpreter of this law, the priest can act as judge, administrator, teacher and scholar, and frame standards and rules of conduct. Since he performs sacred rites, he contributes to the development of sacred song, writing, literature, music, dance, sacred painting, sculpture, and architecture. As guardians of tradition, priests are also wise men, advisors, teachers, and philosophers. In the extent to which these diverse functions are performed, differences exist between religions according to the stage of development from primitive civilizations to highly developed ritualistic religions.

46) The priests of Babylon had much to do not only with the interpretation of morals

47) and religious law, but also with many civil enactments. It was the duty of some of them to receive the tithes, and to certify that they had been paid. Shinto priests are said to “serve not only in the performance of formal shrine rituals but also bear responsibility for administrative functions such as the maintenance and management of shrine facilities and finances… (after World War II later), great expectations are also placed on them for activities in the fields of social welfare and education.”

 

48) between the Indo-Aryan-speaking invaders of northwestern India and the end of the 2nd millennium BCE. The priestly social class was “responsible not only for a wide range of cultural works but also for the creation and preservation of sacred traditions of oral poetry.” The Rigveda mentions purohit (household priest of the king or some wealthy elite) who were not only in constant and intimate service to the king, but also had a close association with the king in his more mundane functions. the ethics of compassion (karuna) was

49) The fundamental driving force of Buddhism. Buddhist monks have therefore traditionally played the role of spiritual advisors and teachers to laypeople. It is now not uncommon to find sangha social services in Theravada countries such as Thailand and Sri Lanka.

 

 

50) In Judaism, apart from cultural functions, priests had supernatural functions, medical functions, instructional and judicial functions, and administrative and political functions, in fact, history testifies that during the period of the Second Temple, when Judea and Jerusalem were under the dominion of foreign empires. The priesthood of Jerusalem played an important political role, with priests also serving as leaders of Jewish communities.

 

51) There is no caste, class or profession in Islam proper that holds a monopoly on the performance of religious rites. When these were first performed publicly, the leader was appropriately the head of the community, and the name imam” ‘leader in prayer’ is hence used for ‘sovereign,’ ‘chief authority,’ and so on. led the sovereign prayer.

52) Because of the priests’ direct and immediate contact with the people who depend on them for God’s intercession, priests exercise tremendous influence over them. Not only in hierarchically classified ecclesiastical bodies but also in religious groups of more or less egalitarian bodies, religious leaders can become trusted, properly respected, and indispensable guides to their followers. basically a predominantly religious

53) influence, influence extends to moral, social, cultural; and political field.

54) There is ample evidence in the history of religions to show that the decline of priests and priestesses has been a part of almost all religious traditions at one time or another. Scholars of Indian thought have noted a change from the simple offerings of the early Vedic period to the complex and ritualistic sacrifices of the Brahmanical period. Persuasion of the gods was replaced by coercion of the gods, while yagya was placed above even the gods. Introducing a distinctly magical element to the rituals, “the priest and the prayer are then transformed into witchcraft and spells.”

 

1. Speaking about the Namboothiris who were temple priests in Kerala, Thulasidharan says it was the remunerative services that attracted them. They lived in extreme comfort and luxury. Although he was supposed to be the guardian of the morality of the society, he did nothing of the sort. “On the contrary, they were only eager to drink the sweet honey of life lees, not leaving a drop for the lower castes.” Some historians trace a similar situation among Christian clergy to the time before the Protestant Reformation. Ridicule, corruption, selling of indulgences and greed for wealth were the characteristics of the age.

55) Nevertheless, priests have often throughout history been considered authoritative between the sacred and the profane. “Throughout the long and varied history of religion, the priesthood has been an official institution.

It is this which has maintained a position of mediation and equilibrium between the sacred and the profane aspects of human society and which has exerted a stabilizing influence on the social structure and cultural organisation. ” but various administrative duties derived from the cultural activities of the priests. Therefore, the less the communication with the number expressed in the formal cult, the closer it is to the shaman.” So long as it is desired to secure, religion is close to magic, but rises to a higher level where it becomes an act of thanking the priest and worshiping one’s own and another’s name.”

 

 

 

 

Shaman

Currently there is unprecedented interest, enthusiasm and confusion about shamanism. Shamanic literature, rituals and workshops are flourishing and have given rise to a veritable cottage industry. There are actually shamanistically trained Anthropolo Geists like Michael Harner and highly controversial figures like Lynn Andrews, “The Shaman of Beverly Hills” (Clifton, 1989) offering shamanism workshops. Given that only a few years ago there was concern that shamanism would soon become extinct, it is clear that the tradition, or at least its contemporary Western version, is doing well.

What is not so clear is what exactly a shaman is. In fact, there is considerable controversy over this controversial point. On the one hand the ideas of the showman have been described as “mentally deranged” and “a complete psycho” (Devereaux, 1961) p “true idio (Wiesler, 1931), a charlatan, epileptic and, perhaps most often (Kacker , 1982; Shaman Noli, 1983) a histrionic or schizophrenic.

On the other hand, an opposite but equally radical approach seems to be emerging in popular literature. Here satanic states are being identified with Buddhism, Yoga or Christian mysticism. Thus, for example, Holger Kalveit (1988, p. 236)

The author would like to thank the following people {or their contributions to the preparation of this paper. Michael Harner provided both theoretical and practical information and introduced a large number of diabolical techniques. Marlene Dobkins de Rios provided bibliographic assistance while Frances Vaughan and Miles

Wich provided valuable feedback on earlier drafts of this paper. As always, Bonnie L’Allier provided excellent secretarial and administrative support.

shamans and shamanism as unique phenomena

Claims that the exorcist “experiences existential unity—the samadhi of the Hindus or what Western spiritualists and mystics call Enlightenment, Enlightenment mystica,” as if uniformly reaching the same state of consciousness.

Unfortunately these comparisons seem to be seriously flawed, being based on gross similarities rather than careful phenomenological comparisons (Walsh, 1990). Space does not permit such analyzes to be presented here. Suffice it to say that when careful phenomenological comparisons are made, it becomes clear that demonic experiences differ significantly from traditional categories of mental illness or those of mystics of other traditions (Nollie, 1983; Walsh 1990).

Therefore, contrary to much popular and professional thinking, we cannot define (or productively discuss) shamans and shamanism in terms of either clinical categories or other mystical traditions. Rather we need to consider and define them as unique phenomena. clearly an adequate definition can do much to help reduce

Huge confusion regarding the nature of shamanism.

definition

The word itself comes from varman of the Tungus people of Siberia, meaning “one who is excited, shaken, raised.” It may be derived from an ancient Indian word meaning “to warm oneself or do penance” (Slacker, 1986) or from a Tungus verb meaning “to know” (Hultcrantz, 1973). But whatever its etymology The term shaman has been widely adopted by anthropologists to refer to specific groups of religious practitioners in various cultures who are sometimes called medicine men, witch doctors, magicians, sorcerers, magicians, or seers. However, these terms are not specific to healers. do not adequately define subgroups that fit more rigorous definitions of shamanism. The meaning and significance of this definition, and of shamanism itself, will become clear if we examine the way in which our definitions and understanding of shamanism have changed over time. have developed together.

Early anthropologists were particularly intrigued by the shamans’ unique interactions with “spirits”. Many people of the tribe may claim to revere, see, or even possess the spirits. However, only the shaman claimed to have some degree of control over them and to be able to command, commune and intervene with them for the benefit of the tribe.

Thus Shirokogoroff (1935, p. 269),’ one of the early explorers of the Siberian Tungus people, stated that:

In all Tungus languages this word (saman) refers to individuals of both sexes who have mastery over spirits, who project these spirits into themselves at will and use their power over spirits in their own interests. especially helping other people who are suffering from it. Spirits; In such a capacity they may have a range of specialized methods for dealing with emotions.

But while the early explorers of souls

While most influenced by shamans’ interactions with humans, later researchers have been influenced by shamans’ control of their own states of consciousness in which these interactions occur (Dobkin, de Rios & Winkleman, 1989; Nolley, 1983; Petersl, 981; Peters & Shamanism Price-Williams, 1980, 1983) As Western culture became more interested in altered states of consciousness (ASC), the first researchers became interested in the use of altered state tradition in religious practices (Tart, 1983a, b) , and it appears that the first tradition to use such states was shamanism. Contemporary altered definitions of shamanism have therefore focused on the use of states such as shamanism (Harner, 1982; Knolly, 1983; Peet & Price-Williams, 1980).

 

 

 

Origin of Shamas

 

However, there are many, many possible states of consciousness (Shapiro & Walsh, 1984; Walsh & Vaughn, 1980; Wilber, 1977, 1980), and so the question naturally arises as to which are specific and defining for shamanism. , The broad definition has broad and narrow definitions. “The only defining characteristic is that the specialist enters into a controlled ASC on behalf of his community” (Petes Price Williams, 1980, p. 408), such specialists would include, for example, Mediums who enter a trance and then claim to speak for a spiritist should note the point that the use of the term “spirits” here does not necessarily imply that there exist separate entities that interact with people in control. or communicate. Rather the term is being used to describe only the way in which shamans and mediums interpret their experiences.

So a broad definition of shamanism would include any practitioner who enters controlled altered states of consciousness, whatever those particular states are. Narrower definitions on the other hand specify altered staters) quite precisely as ecstatic states. Indeed, Mircea Eliade (1964, one of the greatest religious scholars of the 20th century), “the first definition, and perhaps the least dangerous, of this complex phenomenon would be: the shamanistic technique of ecstasy.” Here ecstasy does not mean much ecstasy, but There is more. Emotion, as Random House Dictionary defines it as the taking or transfer of oneself or oneself out of one’s normal state and entering into a state of intense or heightened emotion. As we shall see, Especially suitable for shamanism.

The distinguishing feature of shamanic ecstasy is the experience of “soul flight” or “travel” or “out-of-body experience” (Eliaud, 1964; Harner, 1982). That is, shamans in the ecstatic state experience themselves, or their soul/spirit, flying through space and traveling either to other worlds or to distant parts of this world. In other words, “the shaman specializes in a trance, during which his soul is believed to leave his body and ascend to the heavens or descend to the underworld” (Eliad, 1964, p. 5). These flights reflect the satanic cosmology consisting of the three-tiered universe of the upper, middle and lower worlds, the middle corresponding to our Earth. Shaman is in this threefold work

LD systems tender to learn, gain strength, or diagnose and treat those who come for help and healing. During these visits the shaman may feel himself discovering the other world, meeting otherworldly people, animals or spirits, witnessing the cause and cure of a patient’s illness, or intervening with friendly or demonic forces.

So far, any definition we have includes three key features of shamanism. The first is that shamans can voluntarily enter an altered state of consciousness. Another is that in these states they experience themselves as traveling out of their body to other realms, which is a contemporary of some out-of-body experiences (Munroe, 1971; Irvine, 1985) or lucid dreams (LaBarge, 1985). is in line with the report. , Third, they use these journeys as a means to gain knowledge or power and to help people in their community.

 

Conversations with spirits are also frequently mentioned in definitions of Satanism. Furthermore, Michael Harner, an anthropologist who may have more personal experience of sharanic practices than any other Westerner. suggests that a key element of Satanic practices may be “contact with an ordinarily hidden reality” (Harner, 1982, p. 25). Thus he defines a shaman as “a man or woman who uses an altered form of consciousness to contact and use an ordinarily hidden reality in order to gain knowledge, power, and help other persons.” enters a state of being” (Harner, 1982, p. 25).

Should these two additional elements, “contacting a hidden reality” and “communication with spirits” be included as essential elements of the definition of shamanism? Here we are on difficult philosophical ground. Surely this is what shamans feel and believe they are doing. However it is a huge philosophical leap to assume that this is actually what they are doing. The precise nature of both the worlds (or ontological states in philosophical terms) in which the shamans perceive themselves and the entities they encounter is an open question.

What a question. For the shaman they are interpreted as independent and completely “real”; To a Western person with no belief in other realms or entities they would likely be interpreted as subjective mind creations.

In fact, it may be impossible to decide this question. Technically speaking we can have an example of ontological uncertainty due to the under-determinism of the theory by observation. More simply speaking, it is the inability to determine the ontological status of a phenomenon because observations allow multiple theoretical interpretations. The result is that the interpretation of such uncertain pheno mena (“and” spirits ” in this case of the nature of hidden reality) depends largely on one’s own philosophical inclination or worldview. We can therefore place shamanism on secure grounds. define if we leave these questions as much as possible to philosophical interpretation.

Briefly, shamanism can be defined as a family of traditions whose practitioners focus on voluntarily summarizing altered states of consciousness in which they experience the definition of self, or their spirit(s), Travels to other locations and interacts with other entities at the request of other entities. To serve their shamanism community.

Original

Whatever its origin, shamanism is widely spread throughout the world. It is found today in large areas such as Siberia, North and South America and Australia and is thought to have been present in most parts of the world at one time or another. The remarkable similarities between shamans from widely spread areas of the world raise the question of how these similarities evolved. One possibility is that they arose spontaneously in different places, perhaps due to a common human instinct or recurrent social need. The second is that they resulted from migration and diffusion from a common ancestor.

If migration is the answer, then that migration must have started long ago. Shamanism occurs among tribes with so many different languages that diffusion from a common ancestor must have begun at least 20,000 years ago (Winkelman, 1984).

This long time period makes it difficult to explain why satanic practices would remain stable in so many cultures for so long while language and social practices changed so rapidly. These difficulties make it seem unlikely that migration alone can account for the long history and far-flung distribution of shamanism.

It follows that if the worldwide, history-long distribution of shamanism cannot be attributed to diffusion from a single invention in prehistoric times, they must be discovered and rediscovered in different times and cultures. Was. This suggests that some recurring combination of social forces and innate abilities acquired and maintained Satanic roles, rituals, and states of consciousness over and over again.

Shamanism rediscovered across diverse times and cultures

certainly appears to be evidence of some innate human tendency to enter into conspicuous change

d State. Studies of various meditation traditions suggest that innate instincts to reach altered states can be very accurate. For example, for two and a half thousand years Buddhists have described reaching eight highly specific and distinct states of extreme concentration. These concentrated states, that phantasm, are extremely subtle, stable and blissful and have been described very precisely over the millennia (Buddhagosha, 1923; Gole Man, 1988). Today some western seekers have started reaching out to them and I have had the privilege of interviewing three of them. In each case his experiences match up remarkably well with ancient accounts. Clearly then it appears that the human mind has some innate tendency to settle into certain states if it is given the right conditions or practices.

The same principle may apply to satanic states. Observations of Westerners in satanic workshops suggest that most people are able to enter satanic states to some degree. These states can also be induced by a variety of situations which suggests that the mind may have some inherent tendency to adopt them. The situations that trigger them may include such natural events as isolation, fatigue, ingesting -mic sounds, or hallucinogens (Winkleman, 1984; Walsh, 1989, 1990). Thus they will be rediscovered by different generations and cultures. Since the states can be pleasurable, meaningful, and therapeutic, they will be actively sought and the ways to induce them will be remembered and transmitted across generations.

Distribution due to innate tendency and diffusion

Thus shamanism and its widespread distribution may reflect an innate human tendency to enter certain pleasurable and valuable states of consciousness. Once discovered, customs and beliefs supporting the entry and manifestation of states would also arise, and shamanism would once again emerge. This natural tendency can be supported and expanded by communication between cultures. For example, shamanism in northern Asia

appears to have been modified by the importation of yogic practices from India (Eliad, 1964). Thus the global distribution of shamanism may be due to both instinct and the spread of information. The end result is that this ancient tradition spread across the Earth and probably survived for tens of thousands of years, a period that represents a significant proportion of the time that fully evolved humans (modern Homo sapiens) have been on the planet. are on.

Given that shame has been around for so long and is so widespread, it naturally begs the question of why it occurs in some cultures and not others. Answers are beginning to emerge from cross-cultural research. A notable study examined 47 societies spanning approximately 4000 years from 1750, ie, the Babylonians, to the present century (Winkelman, 1984, 1989). It is interesting to note that, prior to Western influence, all 47 of these cultures used altered states of consciousness as the basis for religious and medical practices. Although shamanic practices were found in most regions of the world, they occurred only in certain types of societies. These were mainly simple nomadic hunting and gathering societies. These people depended little on agriculture and had almost no social class or political organization. Within these tribes the shaman played many roles, both sacred and mundane: medicine taker, healer, ritual performer, keeper of cultural myths, medium, and master of spirits. With his multiple roles and the power vacuum introduced by a classless society, the shaman exerted a great influence on his tribe and people.

However, as societies develop and become more complex, it appears that this situation changes dramatically. Indeed, as societies become sedentary rather than nomadic, agricultural rather than agricultural, and socially and politically classless rather than stratified, then shamanism seems to have disappeared (Winkleman, 1984, 1989). In its place appear a variety of specialists who focus on one of the magician’s many roles. Thus instead of shamans we find healers, priests, mediums and sorcerers/witches. They specialize in the practices of medicine, ritual, exorcism and malevolent witchcraft, respectively. An obvious contemporary western parallel to the older medical general practitioner or G.P. has to disappear. and the presence of diverse experts.

Some of these ancient experts have been compared to the shaman G.P. It is interesting to do with those who preceded them. Priests have emerged as representatives of organized religion and are often religious, moral and even political leaders. He is the leader of social rites and rituals. On behalf of their society, they pray to and propagate spiritual powers. However, unlike their demonic ancestors, they usually have little training or experience in altered states. (Hoppel, 1984).

while priests inherit a socially beneficial religious

Other magical roles of magicians, magicians inherit malevolent ones. Shamans were often hermaphrodite figures to their people, revered for their healing and helping powers, sorcerers and witches feared for their malevolent magic (Rogers, 1982), at least as they note in Winkleman (1984) and other anthropological studies. are experts in malevolent magic and as such they are feared, loathed and persecuted.

 

Origin of Religion (Evolutionary)

The sociology of religion in the nineteenth century was concerned with two main questions. ‘How did religion begin?’ and ‘How did religion develop?’ This evolutionary view was influenced by Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, published in 1859. Just as Darwin attempted to explain the origin and evolution of species, sociologists attempted to explain the origin and evolution of social institutions and society. In the context of religion, two main theories for its origin, animism and animism, were advanced.

 

 

 

 

Animism, Naturalism

 

Animism means belief in souls. Edward B. Tylor considers it the oldest form of religion. He argues that animism derives from man’s attempts to answer two questions, ‘What is it that differentiates between a living body and a dead one?’ and ‘What are those human shapes that appear in dreams and visions?’ To make sense of these phenomena, early philosophers invented the idea of the soul. A soul is a soul that leaves the body temporarily during dreams and visions, and permanently at death. Once invented, the idea of spirits was applied not only to humans, but also to many aspects of the natural and social environment. Thus animals were invested with a soul, as were man-made objects such as the bowler of the Australian Aborigines. Tylor argues that religion, in the form of animism, arose to satisfy man’s intellectual nature, to satisfy his need for death, dreams, and visions.

Naturism means the belief that the forces of nature have supernatural power. F. Max Müller considers it the oldest form of religion. He argues that naturalism arose out of man’s experience of nature, especially

The influence of nature on human emotions. Wonder, terror, wonders and miracles happen in nature, such as volcanoes, thunder and lightning. Amazed by the power and wonders of nature, early man transformed abstract forces into personal agents. Man humanized nature. The force of the wind became the life of the wind, the force of the sun became the life of the sun. Where animism seeks the origin of religion in man’s intellectual needs, extremism seeks it in his emotional needs. Naturalism is man’s response to the effect of the power and wonder of nature on his senses.

From the origins of religion, nineteenth century sociologists turned to its development. Many plans were developed, Tyler being one example. Tylor believed that human societies developed through five major stages, starting with simple hunting and gathering bands, and ending with the complex nation state. Similarly, religion developed through five stages, which corresponded with the development of society. Animism, the belief in a multitude of spirits, constituted the religion of the simplest societies; monotheism, the belief in a single supreme god, constituted the most complex religion. Tylor believed that each stage in the development of religion arose out of preceding stages and that the religion of modern man, ‘can be traced largely to only one god’.

A runaway product of an old and uncivilized system’.

There are many criticisms of the evolutionary approach. The origins of religion are lost in the past. The first indication of a possible belief in the supernatural dates from about 60,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence suggests that Neanderthals in the Near East buried their dead with flowers, stone tools, and jewelry. However, theories of the origin of religion can only be based on speculation and intelligent guesswork. Evolutionists such as Tylor and Muller came up with plausible reasons for why certain beliefs were held by members of particular societies but this does not necessarily explain why those beliefs originated in the first place. Nor can it be argued that all religions are of the same origin. In addition, the clear, precise stages of the development of religion do not correspond to the facts. As Andrew Lang points out, many of the simplest societies have religions based on monotheism, which Tylor claimed was limited to modern societies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Durkheim and Sociological Functionalism

 

 

In the field of religion during the 18th and 19th centuries, it was believed that religion was the result of civilization. In other words, religion only emerged from civilization.

Such an understanding of religion was given by Malinowski, E.B. Tyler, and others. He pointed out that the primitive tribes had definite ideas about the origin of religion. His approach was functional. In fact, origin or dharma is explained from two points of view. One functionalist and the other dialectical i.e. Marxist. The religion, which originated from the aborigines, says that when the Trobriand Islanders went to sea to fish, they faced many unexpected dangers. This prompted the tribals to express their belief in magic and the supernatural. Because there was a need for religion, their emerging religion. In this lesson we will discuss the origin of religion from the point of view of functionalism. Here we will examine the development of religion from the perspective of Durkheim and Max Weber.

 

 

 

 

Origin of Religion: Durkheim’s Thoughts

The 18th century was the century of evolutionary theory. Not only Durkheim and Max Weber, Karl Marx also contributed to the theory of evolution.

The functionalist perspective examines religion in the context of the needs of society. Functional analysis is primarily concerned with the contribution of religion to meeting these needs. From this perspective, society requires some degree of social cohesion, value congruence, and harmony and integration between its parts. The function of religion is the contribution it makes to the fulfillment of such functional prerequisites—for example, its contribution to social cohesion.

 

 

 

 

Sacred And Profane

 

In Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, first published in 1912, Émile Durkheim presented perhaps the most influential explanation of religion from a functionalist perspective (Durkheim, 1961).

Durkheim argued that all societies divide the world into two categories: the sacred and the profane (profane). Religion is based on this division. It is a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred objects, i.e. to say separate and forbidden things. It is important to realize that:

By sacred thing one should not understand only those individual objects which are called deities or souls; A rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a house, in a word anything can be sacred.

There is nothing about the special properties of the pebble or the tree that makes them sacred. So sacred things must be symbols, they must represent something. To understand the role of religion in society, a connection has to be made between sacred symbols and what they represent.

 

 

Totemism

Durkheim used the religion of various groups of Australian Aborigines to develop his argument. He saw their religion, which he called totemism, the simplest and most basic form of religion

Tribal society is divided into many clans. A clan is like a large extended family whose members share certain duties and responsibilities. for exam

Clans have a rule of exogamy—that is, members are not allowed to marry within the clan. Clan members have a duty to aid and assist each other: they join together to mourn the death of one of their members and to avenge a member who has been wronged by a member of another clan. There are

Each clan has a totem, usually an animal or a plant. This totem is then represented by figures made of wood or stone. These drawings are called churingas. Churingas are usually at least as sacred as the species they represent and sometimes more so. Totem is a symbol. It is a symbol of the clan. This is his flag; It is the mark by which each gotra distinguishes itself from all others. However, the totem is more than the churinga it represents – it is the most sacred object in tribal rituals. Totem is the ‘outer and visible form of the totemic principle or god’.

Durkheim argued that if the totem symbolized God and society simultaneously, is it not because God and society are one?

Thus he suggested that in worshiping God, people are actually worshiping society. Society is the real object of religious worship.

How does humanity come to worship the society? Sacred things are considered superior in dignity and power to profane things, and especially to humans. ‘In relation to the sacred, humans are inferior and dependent. This relationship between humanity and sacred things is precisely the relationship between humanity and society. Society is more important and powerful than the individual. Durkheim argued that primitive man regards society as something sacred because he is completely dependent on it.

But why doesn’t humanity just worship society? Why does it invent a sacred symbol like the totem? Because Durkheim argued, it is easier for a person to ‘see and direct his feelings of awe towards a symbol than towards something so complex as a symbol.’

Religion and the ‘collective conscience’

Durkheim believed that social life is impossible without the shared values and moral beliefs that make up collegiate reason. In their absence, there would be no social order, social control and no social solidarity or co-operation. In short, there would be no society. Religion reinforces the collective conscience. The worship of society reinforces the values and moral beliefs that form the basis of social life. By defining them as sacred, religion gives them greater power to guide human action.

This attitude of respect for the sacred is the same attitude that applies to social duties and obligations. In worshiping society, people actually recognize the importance of the social group and their dependence on it. In this way religion strengthens group unity: it promotes social cohesion.

Durkheim emphasized the importance of collective worship. The social group comes together in religious rituals filled with drama and reverence. Together, its members express their belief in common values and beliefs. The unity of the society is strengthened in this highly charged atmosphere of collective worship. Members of society express and understand the moral bonds that unite them.

According to Durkheim, the belief in gods or spirits, usually the focus for religious ceremonies, arose from belief in the ancestral spirits of feared relatives. The worship of the gods is actually the worship of the souls of the ancestors. Since Durkheim also believed that souls represent the presence of social values, the collective conscience is present in individuals. It is through individual souls that the collective conscience is realized. Since religious worship includes the worship of spirits. Durkheim again concluded that religious worship is actually the worship of a social group or society.

 

 

 

Durkheim’s criticism

Durkheim has explained the origin of religion from tribals. The tribals taken by him were just like any other tribals. Most sociologists believe that Durkheim exaggerated his case. While believing that religion is important for promoting social cohesion and strengthening social values, he would not support his view that religion is the worship of the society. Durkheim’s views on religion are more relevant to small, illiterate societies, where there is a close integration of culture and social institutions, where work, leisure, education and family life merge and where members share a common belief and value system. . His ideas are less relevant to modern societies, which have many subcultures, social and ethnic groups, specialized organizations and systems of religious beliefs, practices and institutions. As Malcolm Hamilton states, the emergence of religious pluralism and diversity within a society is, of course, something that Durkheim’s theory has great difficulty in dealing with (Hamilton, 1995).

Durkheim may also exaggerate the extent to which the collective conscience pervades and shapes people’s behaviour. in day

Ed, Sometimes-Religious Belief Social Values

with and can be overridden. Malcolm Hamilton makes this point convincingly:

The fact that our moral sense can lead us to go against the majority, society, or authority suggests that we are not as dependent on society or on beings as Durkheim claimed. Society, powerful as it is, does not have the primacy that Durkheim believed it to have. Ironically, it often seems that religious beliefs can have a much greater influence and hold on the individual than society because it is often out of religious beliefs that individuals will fly in the face of society or retreat from it. Will try to , as has been the case with many communal movements.

 

 

 

Malinowski’s perspective on the origin of religion

Like Durkheim, Malinowski uses data from small-scale non-literate societies to develop his thesis on religion. Many of his examples are taken from his fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands off the coast of New Guinea. Like Durkheim, Malinowski sees religion as reinforcing social norms and values and promoting social solidarity.

However, unlike Durkheim, he does not view religion as reflecting society as a whole, nor does he view religious rituals as worship of society itself. Malinowski identifies specific areas of social life to which religion is concerned, and to which it is addressed.

These are situations of emotional tension that threaten social cohesion.

religion and life crisis

Worry and stress disrupt social life. Situations that generate these emotions include life’s crises such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death. Malinowski notes that in all societies these life crises are surrounded by religious rituals. He views death as the most disruptive of these events and argues that:

The existence of strong personal attachments and the fact of death, which of all human phenomena is the most disturbing and disorganizing to man’s calculations, are probably the main sources of religious beliefs.

The religion deals with the problem of death in the following way. A funeral ceremony expresses the belief ion immortality that denies the fact of death and brings comfort to the bereaved. Other mourners support the bereaved by their presence at the ceremony. This comfort and support checks the emotions that death produces and moderates the stress and anxiety that can disrupt society. Death is socially devastating because it removes a member from society. Social group units to support the bereaved at a funeral ceremony. This expression of social solidarity reconnects the society.

 

 

Religion, Prediction and Control

 

A second category of events – undertakings that cannot be fully controlled or predicted by practical means – also create stress and anxiety. From his observations in the Trobriand Islands, Malinowski noted that such events were surrounded by rituals.

Fishing is an important subsistence practice in the Trobriands. Malinowski observed that in the calm waters of the lagoon ‘fishing by the method of poisoning is easy and absolutely reliable, giving abundant results without danger and uncertainty.’ However, beyond the barrier reef in the open sea lies danger and uncertainty: a storm can result in loss of life and the catch is dependent on the presence of shoals of fish, which cannot be predicted. in the lagoon, where man can rely entirely on his own knowledge and skill; There are no rituals associated with fishing, whereas rituals are performed before fishing in the open sea to ensure a good catch and for the safety of the fishermen. Although Malinowski refers to these rituals as magic, others argue that it is more appropriate to consider them as religious practices.

Again we see that rituals are used for specific situations that generate anxiety. Rituals reduce anxiety by providing a sense of confidence and control. Like funeral ceremonies, fishing rituals are social events. The group unites to deal with situations of stress, and hence group cohesion is strengthened.

So we can summarize that Malinowski’s distinctive contribution to the sociology of religion is his argument that religion promotes social solidarity by dealing with situations of emotional tension that threaten the stability of society.

 

 

 

Malinowski’s Criticisms

 

Malinowski has been criticized for exaggerating the importance of religious rituals in helping people cope with situations of stress and uncertainty. Tambiah (1990, discussed in Hamilton, 1995) for example, suggests that magic and elaborate rituals are associated with the cultivation of taro and yams on the Trobriand Islands. This is related to the fact that taro and yama are important because men must use them to pay off their sisters’ husbands. Men who fail to do so show that they are incapable of meeting important social obligations. So these rituals are only for prestige in that society.

re concerned with maintenance and do little to strengthen cohesion or deal with

Uncertainty and danger. A particular function or effect that occurs in religion, sometimes mistaken for a feature of religion in general.

,

 

 

 

 

 

 

Giving this type of religion, A. van Gennep pointed out that technique and theory are inseparable. He also said that theory without practice (or technique) becomes metaphysics but technique, based on various principles, becomes science.

Of all aspects of culture, Meret was deeply interested in the study of primitive religion and therefore, wrote a classic book on “The Threshold of Religion” published from London in 1909. In this book he discussed various aspects of primitive religion. Also modified the concept of religion and animism of Tylor. He argued that instead of “soul” as suggested by Tylor, “nature” guides the destiny of primitive people and hence, he coined the term “animatism” to understand primitive religion.

After the publication of this book, Morgan now occupied an important position in America and came to be regarded as a full-fledged evolutionist. In 1868 he wrote a paper, “A Conjectural Solution to the Origin of the Classificatory System of Relation • Ship”, which was published by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In this paper he traced the history of the human family through fifteen stages of evolution from primitive sexual promiscuity to modern monogamy. From this time Morgan began working on the reconstruction of world history rather than American Indians alone. Thus, he finally produced his monumental work “Ancient Society” Research in the Lines of Hume on Progress from Savage Barbarism to Civilization”, which appeared in 1877.

This book brought Morgan an international name and fame and he was universally recognized as an evolutionist. In this book he has divided the entire history into three main phases. (a) vandalism,

(b) barbarism and (c) civilization. All these three stages were further linked with economic and intellectual development. According to Morgan, Vandalism was the period before pottery;

 

 

Barbarism began with the Ceramic Age and civilization followed the invention of letters and writing.

The “restatement” of the evolutionary scheme that he gives in his book “Ancient Societies” can be reproduced below:

 

S.No

1. The older (or lower) period of living wildly on fruits and roots, the invention of speech, etc.
2. Middle wild fishing and use of fire.
3. The later (or upper) wild bow and arrow developed.
4. The art of Old (or Lower) barbarian pottery developed.
5. Middle barbarism Animal husbandry, cultivation of maize, plants by irrigation, stone-brick buildings etc.
6. The later (or upper) barbarians invented the process of smelting iron ore, the use of iron tools, etc.
7. The civilization invented the phonetic alphabet and writing.

 

 

Regarding these periods, Morgan further wrote that “each of these periods has a distinct culture and exhibits a way of life, more or less, special and peculiar in itself” (1877).

Among continental evolutionists, who talked about various aspects of the origin of culture, special mention may be made of Johann Jakob Bachofen (1815–1877), Adolf Bastian (1826–1905), Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels. Is. (1820–1895).

The classical evolutionists of the nineteenth century mainly talked about the OR laws, but their conclusions and approaches were modified by the evolutionists of the twentieth century in the light of their new researches and methodological approaches to the origin of culture and are therefore referred to as the new is referred to as. Evolutionary. Among those neo-evolutionists, three scholars can be specially mentioned. v. Gordon Childe (of England), U.S.A. Julian Steward and Leslie White, who have made significant contributions to the study of cultural evolution and their research, have recently shed a new light on the various dimensions of the origin of culture.

 

 

VV Gordon Childe described development in terms of three major events. Invention of food-product ion, urbanization and industrialization. Thus, analyzing the transitions that occurred under the influence of these “revolutions”, Childe presented a holistic view of the evolutionary process, delineating its common factors.

1. Gordon Childe classified the stages of cultural development with reference to archaeological findings as follows:
2. No. Archaeological Period Cultural Development
3. Paleolithic Savagery
4. Neolithic barbarism
5. Dwaparayuga high barbarism
6. Early Bronze Age Civilization

Julian Steward’s contribution to the study of cultural evolution is unique, as he first gave a comprehensive typology of evolutionists based on his methodological studies of different cultural regions of the world. Steward states that cultural evolution can be broadly defined as the search for cultural regularities or laws and further states that there are three specific ways in which evolutionary data can be handled.

First, the unilinear development: •

Classical evolutionists of the nineteenth century developed a formulation that

special sons

creations and disposed them in stages of a universal sequence.

Second, universal development:

An arbitrary label to designate modern revivalist unilinear evolution, where universal evolutionary

With culture instead of cultures. Third, multiline development:

Those who believed in multiple evolutionary sequences took a somewhat less ambitious view than the other two.

 

 

 

Theory Of Cultural Functionalist Thought

 

Bronisław Kaspar Malinowski

In the early part of the twentieth century, functionalism became widely accepted as a new and important anthropological method. It was new only because it involved a systematic principle, but the notion of function itself was quite old. Although Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte used “functions” as a major methodological device in creating their new science of positivism. The concept of the writings of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)

 

 

As functionalism took on greater methodological importance, he is widely regarded as a functionalist by both sociologists and anthropologists. , Durkheim’s writings, especially his book “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life” (1912), in which he summed up his entire sociology with special reference to the work of primitive religion, influenced two rising stars, Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown. Did. British anthropologist, who later became the champion respectively of the functionalist and structuralist schools of thought

 

 

Malinowski’s Early Training:

 

1) Bronisław Kaspar Malinowski was born on 7 April 1884 in Krakow, Germany and graduated on 16 May 1942 at Yale, U.S.A. He died in He was educated in Germany and did his Ph.D. Received. in physics and mathematics in 1908. After working under Karl Bücher and Wilhelm at the University of Leipzig in Germany, Malinowski came to England in 1910. Degree School of Economics from which he obtained his D.Sc degree in 1916.

2) In 1913-14 Malinowski delivered one of the Special Topics Lectures at the London School of Economics. He taught in the Department of Sociology, giving short courses on “Primitive Religion and Social Differentiation” and Social Psychology. In 1914 he was awarded a fellowship largely with the help of C.G. Seligman to work among the tribes of New Guinea.

3) In 1914 Malinowski left England for field work and traveled through Australia with other anthropologists going out to a meeting of the British Association in Melbourne.

 

4) It was here that he first met Radcliffe-Brown and received from him what he later described as valuable hints about fieldwork. Arriving in New Guinea in September 1914, he spent nearly four weeks waiting at Post Moresby for a boat to the east, and took advantage of this period to work with Seligman’s former informant Ahuia Owa. After a few months with Melu, Malinowski returned in May 1915 and continued his field work until its completion in 1918.

5) In October 1918 Malinowski returned from the Trobriand Islanders and lived for some time in Melbourne, where he married Elsie Mason, daughter of Sir David Mason, who was then Professor of Chemistry at the University of Melbourne. After returning to Europe, Malinowski lived for a year in the Canary Islands, where, in April 1921, the preface to his first book, “The Argonauts of the Western Pacific”, was signed. He again took up a position as an occasional lecturer at the London School of Economics in 1921–22, and this time he lectured mainly on the sociology and economics of certain island communities. In 1922-23 he was appointed lecturer in social anthropology. Thus, from 1923 onwards London was an academic home for Malinowski for nearly two decades, through which he traveled widely from here, especially during the summer months. In 1924, Malinowski was appointed Reader in Anthropology at the University of London.

 

 

6) Malinowski was a very well traveled scholar and lectured in many universities of the world like Geneva, Vienna, Rome, Oslo, Cornell, Harvard etc. In 1926 he L. Visited the United States for the first time at Seligman’s invitation. Rockefeller Memorial. He returned to Cornell in 1933 to deliver the Messenger Lecture and again in 1936 as a representative of the University of London to the Harvard Centenary Celebrations, where he was also awarded an honorary D.Sc from Harvard University. Malinowski was appointed professor of anthropology at Yale University in early 1924, but died before he could take up the position.

7) Malinowski’s Contribution to Field-work Methods:

8) Malinowski undertook a total of three expeditions to Guinea to study the Trobri and the islanders, which have been regarded as a turning point in the history of field expeditions in world anthropology. Malinowski’s contribution to field methods can be summarized under the following points.

9) I Language: Malinowski has emphasized that the researcher should collect data through the medium of native language and for this the researcher should

10) Long time c through d data gathering

One must learn the language of the natives before working in the Han area – must work among them.

11) II. Malinowski’s Field Methods:

12) Malinowski actively sought his information using a number of techniques. In the study of the Trobriands he used, what he later called, a somewhat complex method, involved the collection of statements of normative and concrete cases, genealogies, censuses of villages, maps, and especially to show the ownership of garden land. The preparation of symbolic tables or charts for hunting and fishing privileges, description of rituals and technical activities in association with the harvest and the pattern of gift exchange along with its social, ceremonial and economic aspects.

13) III. Malinowski’s Ethnological Diary:

14) Malinowski raised the problem of the “personal equation” of the observer. However, he believed that it can be taken into account to some extent by taking into account the general and specific as well as the duration of the field work. He also insisted that an adequate investigation of a culture demanded not only documentation of aspects of social structure, description of behavior and emotional interactions, but also original observations on actions, their beliefs and ideas. He considered it the duty of an anthropologist. To carefully and honestly describe his credentials and mistakes made in the field in an ethnographic diary.

15) Malinowski Concept of Culture:

16) One of Malinowski’s stimulating contributions to anthropological thought was his concept of culture. Malinowski defined culture in 1931 and stated that “culture consists of inherited artifacts, goods, technical processes, ideas, habits, and values”. Social organization is also included because he argued that “it cannot really be understood as part of culture” (Malinowski. 1931).

 

 

17) When we analyze Malinowski’s use of the term more closely it becomes necessary to distinguish between the various intellectual preoccupations that were subsumed for him under the term culture. First, he considered the concept of culture as a tribal microcosm, functioning as a whole, which, as Fortes (1953) has pointed out, was a new and provocative idea when it was first propounded by Malinowski.

 

18) Secondly, with this idea went Malinowski’s customs, institutions and beliefs, which became part of each culture, with the different shades of meaning he gave the word “use”. Third, Malinowski, like other sociologists and psychologists of his time, was preoccupied with the distinction between and between the biological and sociological heritage of the mean, and he identified the latter with the term culture from the outset.

19) Malinowski was of the opinion that a culture characteristic or feature, which is functionless, will not survive, and therefore no culture will exist. Malinowski argued that a culture trait should not be studied in isolation. As in society one quality is related to another quality. It needs to be studied in an integrated manner, which Malinowski calls integration theory.

20) Malinowski emphasized the study of “specific culture” rather than “culture”. Again, he suggested that a specific culture should be studied as an “integrated whole”. By “integrated totality” he meant that different aspects of a culture are related to each other.

 

21) Thus, culture was a unifying system for him. By integration he meant the interdependence of cultural traits. Society as an integrated group. For Malinowski, culture was a means that enabled man to maintain his biological existence. He recognized that nothing is loose within the culture; All cultural traits serve the needs of individuals in society, ie. The function of a cultural trait lies in the ability of members of a group to satisfy some basic or derived need.

22) Malinowski’s definition of necessity is very important. He says, ‘By necessity, understand the system of conditions in the human organism in a cultural setting, and both in relation to the natural environment, that are both sufficient and necessary for the survival of the group and the organism. A requirement is, therefore, a limited set of facts. Habits and their motivations, learned responses and foundations of organization must be organized so as to satisfy basic needs”

23) In this definition of need Malinowski emphasizes “the system of conditions in the human organism” when a series of “significant sequences” involve the satisfaction of certain biologically determined impulses. According to Malinowski these important sequences can be represented as follows:

 

 

Important sequences included in all cultures

 

(A) impulse (B) act (C) satisfaction

 

• drive to breathe;
• Gasping for air intake of oxygen elimination of CO.
• Food satisfaction of hunger
• Thrust absorption of liquid quenching
• Restoration of sex-appetite conjunction muscle and nerve energy
• Sleepy awakening with restored energy.

 

• Relieve bladder pressure micturition stress
• Avoid fear danger
• R Comfort
• Pain relief by effective action Return to normal
• To suit various functions and satisfaction

These impulses refer to the dynamic basis of “human nature”, which is believed to belong to an individual organism. Again, this list of impulses only directly corresponds to the basic needs of man as an animal species, because at this level the concept of individual and collective survival is added to individual impulses.

 

• Malinowski eventually produced a table of basic needs, which emphasized the total conditions necessary for the individual and the group of existence and only individual impulses.

 

• Basic needs Cultural responses

o Metabolism Commissariat

o reproductive kinship

o physical comfort shelter

o Security Protection

o Movement Activities

o Development Training

o health hygiene

 

• Personal impulses and basic needs can also be applied to other animals including sub-human primates. But man is a very special type of primate, and the special feature which he has acquired in the course of evolution has made possible the development of that specifically human form of biological adjustment which we call culture.

 

 

• Culture, then biological existence is the value. Its adaptive character is partly due to the fact that although basic needs, shared with other animals, provide a “primary determinism”, the conditions of man’s life as a social animal impose a “secondary determinism”.

 

• Malinowski defined it in terms of determinism. It is defined as “derived needs” or “compulsories”. These relate to the needs for the maintenance of cultural systems regulation of human behaviour, socialization and exercise of authority etc. According to Malinowski: “Reactions” include economic, social control , education, political organization etc.
• Malinowski was of the view that an essential feature of human social life is that habit turns into custom, parental care into the deliberate training of the rising generation and impulses into values, Malinowski calls this the “integrated imperative”. And according to that, the key to this whole process of symbolism, which must have been present at the birth of the culture.
• Thus, Malinowski’s needs uis. Primary, (or basic), derived and integrative, all levels emphasize the biological determinants of cultural activity and therefore provide a theory of analysis and comparison of universal validity.
• Malinowski’s Theory of Methodology
• The root meaning of Kriya is action or action. Every object has a function and, therefore, Malinowski was of the opinion that all cultural components have a function to perform, as explained by him while explaining the concepts culture and necessity.
• Malinowski and his colleagues were of the opinion that a cultural trait, which is functionless, would not survive and therefore no cultural entity would exist.

 

• One attribute of culture is integrated with the other and thus if one attribute is disturbed, it cripples the other. From this interpretation of Malinowski emerged the integration theory of culture. The functionalist approach, therefore, emphasizes the examination of institutional relations and is more of a unified description, as it is of what Malinowski called “invisible facts” of the principles of organization and their interrelationships.
• Although Malinowski’s early writings do not show much interest in function, gradually, he developed his theory of function to make his explanation more scientific and hence he demonstrated his plan of action through a charter. Did.
• That is, the purpose of the purpose of the society. According to Malinowski, the first objective of every society is its survival.

 

• Thus, according to the Charter, every society consists of individuals who have a set of norms or values. Thus, according to Malinowski, these norms or values motivate the individual to have material mechanisms that create activities. And activities, according to Malinowski, lead to function. This is shown below:

 

 

 

 

CHARTER

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Religion, though open to escape from emotional stress, but apart from these functions, it also makes a social contribution, as it helps in the maintenance of moral law and order, and “identifies the entire tribes as a social unit”. works towards. ,

 

Thus, Malinowski eventually linked psychological and social functions to biological functions, and this notion of function as meeting biological needs became the core of Malinowski’s functional theory.

Malinowski culture was adaptive, and concerned neither man nor man with the satisfaction of biological needs without the satisfaction of basic biological needs, which he called derived needs. In short, thus to understand these dimensions of culture, according to Malinowski, the theory of function must be applied. In other words, Malinowski created a very scientific framework for the study of the dynamics of culture through the theory of action.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social Structure

 

Social structure is one of the important concepts of sociology. The concept of social structure was first used by Herbert Spencer in his book “Principles of Sociology”. Durkheim used it in ‘The Rules of Sociological Methods’. but unfortunately it

Could not explain it clearly. Lewis Henry Morgan’s book ‘Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family’ is considered to be the first anthropological study of social structure. It may be noted that the word structure was first used in the perspective of the structure of the house. After that it was used in biology in the form of body structure and it was taken from biology itself in sociology. The way a body or a material object is structured, in the same way the society is also structured. The structure of society is also made up of several units such as family, institutions, associations, normative relations, values and positions etc. All these units are related to each other systematically and are relatively stable in their respective places. With the combination of all these, an external form of society appears which we call social structure. Society is not a monolithic system. It has different parts. These different parts are systematically combined to form a structure. This structure is called social structure. In the words of Talcott Parsons, “Social structure refers to the interrelated institutions, actors and social patterns and the specific ordering of the statuses and roles performed by each individual in the group. It is clear from this definition that –

, Creation of social structure Social institutions, agencies. social norms and the statuses and roles of the individual.

, In this sense the social structure is abstract, because the units of its construction are abstract.

These units are related to each other.

There is a specific orderliness found in the social structure.

 

In the view of Karl Manheim, ‘social structure is a network of interacting social forces from which different modes of observation and thinking have emerged. This statement shows that –

Social structure is a web of social forces.

Here social forces mean the means of social control.

, These social forces keep interacting with each other.

Along with this, these powers give rise to methods of observation and thinking.

According to H. M. Johnson, “The structure of an object is formed by the relatively permanent interrelationships existing in its parts.” A certain amount of permanence is found in the word anga itself. Since a social system is made up of the unrelated actions of people, its structure must be sought in the degree of regularity or repetition of these actions. It is clear from this definition that social mobility is associated with social change. This definition shows that –

There are many units of construction of social structure.

Interrelationships are found in these units.

– These relations have the qualities of permanence and the activities related to individuals contribute to the formation of social structure.

RK Merton has told the basis of social structure is the status and role of the individuals of the society. He says that a person gets many statuses in the society and there are roles related to each status. The social structure is formed from these statuses and roles. In the light of the above definitions, it can be said that the social structure is made up of many units (social groups, institutions, status and role of individuals, etc.). These units are interrelated. It is considered to be relatively stable.

 

 

 

Characteristics Of Social Structure

 

Particular Arrangement: Social structure is a particular arrangement. Any social structure is not formed by mere sum of units, but they have to be combined in a specific order. In the absence of order, there cannot be a structure. In the same way, if brick, stone, cement, iron, sand etc are mixed and kept at one place, then the building does not get built. The structure of the building is formed properly only when these things are combined in a systematic manner.

Effect of Local Characteristics: Social structure has local characteristics. This is the reason why the structure of one society is different from another society. Actually the society is influenced by the geographical, economic, cultural and political conditions of that place. It is natural that there should be a mark of locality in the structure of the society.

Interrelated: The quality of interrelation is found in the units of social structure. Each record is related to other units. Family, School. College, hospital, police station, court, etc. are units of social structure. They have their own special work in the society, which makes its importance clear, but all these units are not independent, but are related to each other in one way or the other. This is the specialty of social structure. From these above mentioned characteristics the concept of social structure becomes more clear. In this form it can be said to be the result of the interactions of the lines.

Abstract Concept: Social structure is an abstract concept. Parsons and McIver. And the page has mentioned this feature. Parsons mentioned institutions, agencies, norms, situations and roles as units of social structure.

. None of these units is concrete, but abstract, hence the social structure is also abstract. Wright believes that social structure refers to a state or condition or relationship, that is why it is an abstract concept.

Relatively Stable: Social structure is a relatively stable concept. Johnson says that the units from which the social structure is built are relatively more permanent. That is why social structures made up of relatively stable units are relatively stable. Actually the structure is a pattern of permanent elements or parts and for this reason highly variable elements cannot be included in them.

Social Processes: Social processes contribute in the formation of social structure. Cooperation, adjustment, assimilation, competition and conflict etc. are some of the processes without which social structure cannot be formed. A special social structure is created according to the nature of these processes. M. B. Olsen (M. B. Olsen) has considered the social structure as external to the processes.

Sub-Structures: There are many sub-structures of a social structure. It means to say that the units from which the social structure is formed have a separate structure of their own. For example, social structure is formed by family, school, college, hospital, caste etc. In this way social structure is made up of many sub-structures.

 

 

Outer Form: Social structure gives an idea of the outer form of the society. It is made up of various units (groups, institutions, committees, status and role of individuals, etc.). These units are related to each other and form a structure. Just like the body structure is formed from different parts of the body (hands, legs, ears, eyes etc.).

 

Elements Of Social Structure

 

There is a lack of consensus among social scientists regarding the elements of social structure. H.M. Johnson has considered various groups, sub-groups and the social relations found among them as elements of social structure. RM McIver (R. M. Maclver) has seen family, community, caste, class, town, village etc. as elements. The basic elements of social structure can be understood as follows

Statuses and Roles: The basic elements of social structure are the statuses and roles of individuals. The systematic combination of these two creates a social structure. Every person gets a certain position in the social structure, that is called his status. The person suited to the position is expected to complete the task, that is his role. The harmony in status and role maintains the structure.

Social Interactions: Social interactions are an important element of social structure. Individuals in every society interact with each other to satisfy their various needs. does. In the course of this interaction, the division of labor is associated with the maximum benefit and satisfaction of the individual. the structure of society rests on

Social Institutions: Institutions are important elements of social structure. Institutions refer to those rules and procedures which contribute to the maintenance of social relations. The development of such institutions takes place after a long process. These have the qualities of relative stability. Institutions determine appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Social relations are established through them. The system of control is maintained. Thus the social structure is made up of multiple elements. These elements are closer to sociological approaches.

Person: The first element of the social structure is called the person. R. Brown has written, “Human beings are the parts of the social structure.” Individuals keep on developing mutual social relations. This creates a complex web of relationships. These relationships are defined and regulated by social institutions. It organizes people in a certain way. This systematic form of individuals is the social structure.

Norms and Values: The basic element of social structure is social value and norm. R. K. Merton says that the orderliness of the social structure remains as long as the individuals of the group behave according to the values and norms. When the balance and orderliness of these rules gets disturbed, the situation of anomie flourishes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social System

 

Social order is created through social interactions and interrelationships. As a result of the interactions and inter-relationships between human beings, various customs, work-systems, committees, institutions, means of control etc. develop. These different elements remain functionally combined. This is the social system. T. Parsons has done the most detailed discussion of system analysis in modern sociology. He has given a detailed explanation of this in his famous book.

Till ‘The Social System’ in 1951 (The Social System). Parsons has defined social system as, ‘A social system is made up of a plurality of individual actors interacting in a situation that has at least one physical or environmental aspect, such actors as optimal are driven by the desire to satisfy and whose relationships with each other and with their situations are defined and decided by cultural structures and common associative symbols. This definition reveals the following basic facts –

(1) There has to be more than one actor for a social system.

(2) There is a process of interaction between these agents.

(3) The condition is necessary for the interaction. This situation includes both physical and social environment.

(4) have a definite objective and

(5) Which will have a cultural structure.

Loomis holds that (1) a social system is created by the interaction of multiple individual acts; (2) These actors have the properties of interdependence. (3) The doer has a goal. In the desire to achieve that goal, the actors are related to each other and interact.

M-E. According to Jones (M. E. Jones), “Social order is a state or condition in which the various functional units constituting the society are related in a meaningful way with each other and with the society as a whole.” This statement shows It goes on to show that a social system is formed as a result of the interaction of many individuals related in a recognized manner. Thus, on the basis of the above description, it can be said that the social system is formed as a result of the interaction of individuals. These people interact with each other keeping one goal in mind. Along with this, it is necessary to have a place and situation for interaction.

 

Characteristics of Social System

Meaningful Interaction: Social system is a system of meaningful interactions. Meaningless or purposeless interactions do not constitute social order. The origin and development of customs, methods of work, groups, institutions, means of control, etc. found in the society is the result of meaningful interactions.

Functional Relation: Functional relations are found between the units of formation of social system. Each of its units has a certain function. It is on the basis of this function that each unit is connected to each other, due to which an associated equality is created. This is called social system.

Dynamic: Social system is dynamic. Its basis is interactive relationship. Changes keep coming in the interactive relationships. That’s why change in social system is natural. This does not mean that there is no stability in it. Mobility is observed only in its stability.

Related to Cultural System: Parsons has mentioned the cultural background in the formation of social system. According to him, the basis of social order is the interactional relationship. This relationship is determined by religion, custom, law, public custom etc. All these are the units of the cultural system, in this form it is natural for the social system to be related to the cultural system.

Fulfillment of Human Needs: One of the main features of the social system is called the relationship with the fulfillment of human needs. This system has a definite goal which is humane. The basic basis of the reactions found between two or more agents is the fulfillment of needs. Human needs are the foundation of interdependence. That is why Parsons has also mentioned social system as all the needs. These are the biological pre-requisites. Cultural pre-requisites rather than functional pre-requisites.

Adaptability: Social system has the quality of adaptability. One, society is changing. In this sequence, the system also keeps on adapting to the changed circumstances. Second, human needs keep changing. In this sequence, the social system also changes and adapts to the changed circumstances.

Social Interaction: Social system is based on the process of interaction. Parsons has written, “Social order is essentially a network of interacting relations. In this, when there are interactive relations between two or more actors, then social order is created.” Parsons considered action as the building stone for the system Where is it?

 

Equilibrium: Social system is a system of balance. This is not a monolithic system. It has many units and sub-units. These units do not work in isolation, rather all the units work together. it maintains balance

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Structural Theory

 

Claude Levi Strauss

 

1) Claude Lévi-Strauss is an anthropologist known for his development of structural anthropology. He was born in Brussels and studied law and philosophy at the University of Paris in Paris.

Or was He first studied law and philosophy and then found his true vocation in anthropology. He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. He has many functions; He is a Foreign Fellow of the American Philosophical Society, American Academy of Arts and Science, Royal Academy of Netherlands, Norwegian Academy of Science etc. He has been awarded honorary doctorates from several universities including Yale, Oxford etc. He lived in Brazil. 1931 to 1939. It was during that time that he conducted his first ethnographic fieldwork, conducting periodical research in Mato Grosso and the Amazon Rainforest.

 

 

2) The theories of Lévi-Strauss are presented in Structural Anthropology (1958). In short, he considers culture to be a system of symbolic communication, which is investigated in ways that others have used more narrowly in discussions of novels, political speeches, sports, and films.

3) According to structural theory in anthropology and social anthropology, meaning is produced and reproduced within a culture through various practices, events, and activities that function as systems of significance. Structuralism studies activities as diverse as food preparation and serving rituals, religious rites, games, literary and non-literary texts, and other forms of entertainment in order to discover the deeper structures by which meaning is made within a culture. Generates and regenerates.

4) An early and prominent practitioner of structuralism, anthropologist and ethnographer Claude Lévi-Strauss in the 1950s analyzed cultural phenomena including mythology, kinship (alliance theory and the incest taboo), and food preparation, in addition to these studies , he produced more linguistically-orientated writings where he applied Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole in his exploration of the fundamental mental structures of the human mind, arguing that those structures constitute the “deep grammar” of society. They originate in the mind and work in us unconsciously. Lévi-Strauss was inspired by information theory and mathematics.

5) Like any other systematic branch of knowledge, anthropology has a tradition of revolutionizing the search for principles governing society and culture. Thomas Kuhn called the general laws ‘paradigms’, which are accepted and shared by a scientific society at a given point in time. For a considerable period of the long history of anthropology, several paradigms have successively dominated, competing with each other and eventually overcoming each other.

6) In the beginning of anthropology, theorists believed in the universality of cultural states arising from the psychic unity of mankind. When anthropology developed as an empirical science, evolutionism was replaced by functionalism, rejecting the preconceptions. Later in the middle of the twentieth century, the French anthropologist and philosopher Lévi-Strauss introduced a new and different theoretical model in the study of culture called ‘structuralism’.

7) Lévi-Strauss’ contribution to structuralist thought is that he provides a scientific account that shows the world as a world of meanings; He believes that structuralism can be used to reveal the unity of all cultures. Two of his works are considered classic: Anthropologie structurale (1958) and the earlier Elementary Pstructure of Kinship (1949). He considers himself one of the few “purely structuralist thinkers”. He has applied structural theory to the study of myth, ritual, and kinship.

8) The most frequently cited area of Lévi-Strauss’s work is his study of mythology.

 

 

 

 

9) Lévi-Strauss analyzes cultural phenomena such as languages, myths and kinship systems to discover what patterns or structures they exhibit. He suggested that these may reveal the structure of the human mind. He argued that behind s

10) On the surface of different cultures there must exist natural properties (universals) common to all of us. Lévi-Strauss focused his attention on the patterns or structures underlying the customs and beliefs of all cultures.

11) Lévi-Strauss is interested in the structural pattern that gives myth its meaning. Through his examination of myths from around the world, he has identified that myths are organized into binary oppositions (eg, good/bad) like basic linguistic units. Myths can be broken down into individual units (“mythemes”) that acquire meaning in the same way as the basic sound units of language (“phonemes”) when combined together in particular ways. Lévi-Strauss then becomes interested in the structural pattern that gives myth its meaning. He believes that this linguistic model will reveal the basic structure of the human mind, that is, the structure that governs the way humans shape all their institutions, artifacts, and forms of their knowledge. The rules governing these combinations can be seen as a kind of grammar, a set of relations beneath the surface of the narrative that constitute the true “meaning” of the myth.

 

12) In addition, the mood of the story

Nick structuralist analysis (known as narratology) began with Lévi-Strauss’s pioneering work on myth.

13) The new school emphasized mental structure as a replacement for social structure and retreated sharply from the tradition of extensive empirical fieldwork and cultural relativism. This theoretical orientation discovered the universality and physical unity of mankind which is also innate in human life and indeed brought about a revolutionary change which can be termed as the ‘Scientific Revolution’ in the human sciences (Kuhn. 1970).

14) Although structuralism searches for universal laws of the human mind, its investigation and analysis are fundamentally distinctive from an evolutionary perspective. He believed in mental structure as the basis of universal mental thought process, emphasizing the notion, ‘the mental thought process is universal and innate’.

15) From the study of oral traditions, myths, kinship system, he forcefully reveals the dichotomous opposition of human mental structure, which he calls ‘binary opposition’. Such mental states are in fact active in all human societies—death/life, wild/civilized, raw/cultivated, human/animal, culture/nature, love/hate, etc. Lévi-Straussian interpretation gave a new impetus to the understanding of human beings. mind as well as the cultural world that extends beyond the limits of contemporary anthropology. It is important to remember that Lévi-Strauss and his structuralism made significant contributions to the debate over the nature of “meaning”.

 

 

 

 

1. Radcliffe Brown

 

1) Although functionalism and structuralism have been said to be “both looking at the same data” (Firth: 1951; Richards: 957 etc.), sometimes the structuralists, whose leaders were

2) A.R. Radcliffe Brown (1881–1955), went beyond the methodology, interpretations, and interpretations of social phenomena, which eventually constituted a major school of thought in anthropology.

3) The term social structure had already appeared in the works of Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) “Principles of Sociology” (1885, Volume I) and Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) “The Division of Labour” (1893).

4) (-AR. Radcliffe Brown, champion of this school of thought, “The constituents of social structure are human beings; the structure itself is the arrangement of individuals in institutionally defined and regulated relationships” (1952).

5) Initial training of AR. Radcliffe Brown

6) Alfred Reginald Radcliffe Brown was born in 1881. He started his earning as a student

7) W.H.R. Rivers in psychology but became his first student in social anthropology at Cambridge in the year 1904.

8) Redchuff Brown was a true social anthropologist, as he read social anthropology, wrote social anthropology and taught social anthropology alone in several universities. Sydney, Cape Town, Chicago and Oxford. In Chicago he taught social anthropology from 1931 to 1937, and then at Oxford from 1937 to July 1946, guiding the fortunes of many distinguished British anthropologists there.

9) Radcliffe Brown not only fought for the independent status and existence of social anthropology; But they also developed a number of theoretical concepts and ideas, which eventually formed an independent school of thought in anthropology. His theoretical concepts in the broad perspective of social structure, interpretation of socio-economic religious institutions are the most outstanding contribution which he made for the development of this science at the global level.

10) Social Structure Theory of Radcliffe Brown

11) Radcliffe Brown first used the concept of social structure while lecturing on “Social Anthropology” at Birmingham in 1914 (Forte: 1956). However, the concept of social structure was expounded in detail in his presidential address to the Royal Anthropological Inns in 1940.

12) Title of Great Britain. On this occasion he also pointed out that “there is no functionalist theory; functionalism was a myth invented by Professor Malinowski” (1940). However, when Radcliffe-Brown’s works were analyzed and interpreted by his colleagues, it was found that Radcliffe-Brown was a different type of functionalist, what might be called a “structural-functionalist” (Maffitz: 1974).

 

 

13) According to Radcliffe Brown the concept of structure refers to the arrangement of interrelated parts or components into some kind of larger unity. For example, we can talk about the structure of a house, m ji: as an arrangement of walls, roofs, rooms, passageways, etc., and finally as an arrangement of bricks, stone, wood, etc. Similarly we can talk about composition. A piece of music as an arrangement of successive sounds and hence, we can say that the structure of a song is either good or bad? Thus there is a structure of the human body – like the number of organs, bones, tissues etc.

14) The ultimate component in a social structure is the individual human being or individuals and “the structure consists of the arrangement of individuals in relation to one another” (Radcliffe Brown: 952). For example, in a village we find the arrangement of individuals in families or households, which is again a structural feature. The structure in the family consists of the relationship between father, mother and children.

15) Thus, in search of the structural features of social life we first

It also looks at the existence of various types of social groups and also examines the internal structural system of those groups. In addition to the arrangement of individuals in groups and within those groups, we also find arrangements in social classes and categories. Social distinctions between men and women, between brahmins and shudras or untouchables, are important structural features.

16) While structure refers to the arrangement of individuals, organization refers to. To arrange activities. According to Radfi Brown, social organization is the arrangement of activities of two or more individuals, which are adjusted to give a common joint activity.

 

17) Radcliffe Browne illustrated the concept of social structure by giving examples from the tribes of Western Australia. He held that tribes were divided into several regions and the men thus formed a distinct social group attached to a particular region, which we may speak of as a clan, a unit of fundamental importance in the social structure. In Australian tribes, the clan is known as a horde.

 

18) The internal structure of the crowd was a division into families, each composed of a man _ with his wife or wives and their young children. A mob has a continuous existence, as mob members are replaced from time to time by the death of old and newborn members entering the mob. Thus, the continuity of the social group is an important factor for the survival of the social structure.

19) Radcliffe Brown further suggested that individuals from different gangs and different tribes are linked together through the kinship system. Therefore, the inter-tribal kinship structure also plays an important role for the maintenance of the total social structure.

20) Radcliffe-Brown held that since social structure is an arrangement of individuals in institutionalized roles and relationships, structural continuity is the continuity of such an arrangement. Structural continuity in human societies is dynamic in this sense. According to Radcliffe Brown, social structure is, therefore, to be defined as a continuous arrangement of individuals in relationships defined or controlled by institutions, i.e. socially established norms or patterns of behaviour.

 

 

21) Social structure consists of a web of relationships but those webs of relationships are governed by norms, rules or norms. Thus, in any relationship within the social structure a person knows that he is expected to behave within the prescribed manner and norms.

Social Anthropology and Social Structure

 

1) Radcliffe-Brown first explained that social anthropology is the theoretical natural science of society, that is, the investigation of social phenomena by methods similar to those used in the physical and biological sciences. However, he remarked that he did not mind if one called it “comparative sociology” and that it was in fact a discipline unto itself.

 

2) In other words it is the study of human society, but Radcliffe Brown did not approve of the term “culture” which is generally used by anthropologists for the study of human society as a whole. He explained that the inhabitants of a particular society live in certain natural environments. We observe their behavioral acts and direct observation tells us that these human beings are connected to each other by a complex network of social relationships and that Radcliffe-Brown has actually used this network of social relationships to function. used the term structure. Social Ph.D.

3) Anomena forms a separate class of natural phenomena. They are all, in one way or another, linked to the existence of social structure, either implicit in it or resulting from it. Thus, the social structure is as real as the individual organism. The social phenomena that we observe in any society are not the immediate result of the nature of individual human beings, but the result of the social structure by which they are united.

4) According to Radcliffe-Brown there are two important factors in social structure: first, the social relationship of individuals to individuals and second, the differentiation of individuals and classes by their social role. Regarding the first factor, he said that the kinship structure of any society consists of many such pairwise (set of two) relations, such as between a father and himself, or between a brother and son of another, or a mother’s son. He stated that the entire social structure in an Australian tribe is based on a network of relationships of individuals that is established through genealogical ties. Regarding the second factor, which is social role,

 

5) Radcliffe-Brown suggested that the different social statuses of men and women, chiefs and commoners, employers and servants, belonging to different clans or different nations are determinants of social relations.

 

 

Radcliffe-Brown divided models of social structure into two categories: first, actual social structure; and second, the general social structure. Regarding actual social structure, Radcliffe-Brown suggested that the actual social relations of individuals and groups of individuals changed from year to year or continue to change today. New members come into a community by birth or immigration while others come by death or immigration.

Goes out of the community through death. In addition, there are also marriages and divorces in which members change several times. Thus, according to Radcliffe-Brown, while actual social structure changes at times, general social structure may remain relatively stable over long periods of time.

 

 

Spatial Aspects of Social Structure

1) Regarding the spatial aspect of social structure, Radcliffe-Brown suggested that there is hardly any society which is truly isolated or which has no contact with the outside world. In this way, the web of social relations is spread over a vast area and a person of a particular village or society remains connected with different bonds by connecting with the person of another village located far away.

 

2) Here again a wide range of kinship relations prevailed among the primitive society and kinship relations on this basis. Radcliffe-Brown suggested that residents of a village also interact with, or relate to, residents of other areas. It may also be mentioned in this connection that Radcliffe-Brown did not suggest that the social structure of only one village or locality should be studied, rather he insisted that sociologists or social anthropologists should study the social structures of many areas. should be studied. Observe, describe and compare the systems of social structure of different regions {He said that from this point of view many scholars of America and Great Britain have studied the social structure of a Japanese village, French village, Mexican village etc.

3) Social structure and social personality?

4) Social Physiology and Social Structure

5) When Radcliffe Brown suggested that anthropologists should study the varieties and variations of structural systems, he used two terms namely social morphology and social physiology. By the term social morphology he meant the comparative morphology of societies in which some sort of classification or type of structural systems is made. In other words, according to Radcliffe-Brown, social morphology consists of the definition, comparison and classification of various structural systems.

6) Apart from this morphological study, there is also a physical study of society in which a wide range of questions are studied by social scientists.

7) Social physiology according to Radcliffe Brown includes all kinds of social phenomena, such as morality, law, etiquette, religion, government, education, etc., which are part of the complex mechanism by which a social structure exists and is maintained.

 

8) According to Radcliffe Brown we study these things not in abstraction or isolation but in their direct and indirect relation to the social structure. In short, it can be said that these social phenomena are studied with reference to the way in which they depend on or affect social relations between individuals and groups of individuals.

 

 

9) Social Structure and Economic Institutions

10) Radcliffe Brown says that economic institutions of human society can be studied from two angles. First, economic systems can be viewed as mechanisms

 

 

11) in which goods of different types and in different quantities are produced, transported or transferred and used; and secondly, economic s

12) System can also be considered as a set of relations between individuals and group, which maintains and survives this exchange or circulation of goods and from this point of view, the study of economic life of societies Can be done as part of general studies. social structure.

 

 

13) Concept of Social Relations and Religion in Social Structure

14) According to Radcliffe Brown “a social relationship occurs between two or more organisms when there is some adjustment of their respective interests” (1940). Radcliffe-Brown used the term “interest” in the broadest possible sense, and he referred to all behavior that we consider to be purposive.

 

15) According to him, the word “interest” means to express or denote a subject and an object and especially the relation between them. Talking in terms of grammatical relations, Radfie Brown suggested that a subject has an interest in something. In other words, an object has definite value to the subject and hence, according to him, “interest” and “value” are correlative terms. He also talked about the deterioration of social relations. He pointed out that interests or values are determinants of social relations, as the study of social structure leads immediately to the study of social determinants.

 

 

16) Concept of social change in social structure

 

17) Radcliffe Brown suggested that there are important aspects of social structure which have not been studied in detail and these are the methods and processes of social change. Although few studies have been done on social change in uneducated societies, but

18) It is confined to a particular type of process of change which remains under the influence or dominance of some invaders or conquerors. Radcliffe-Brown pointed out that this type of change is being designated by some anthropologists as culture contact and criticized that by this term we can understand one-way or two-way effects of interaction in ‘societies’.

 

19) But what interested him in the study of social change societies?

was, he called the Samagra Samaj or Plural Samaj. Elaborating on the concept of a plural society, Radcliffe-Brown suggested that a composite society could be represented by classes of people with different languages, different customs and ways of life, as well as different sets of ideas and values.

 

 

20) Radcliffe-Brown’s view is that the concept of social progress is best explained as the steady material and moral improvement of mankind from crude stone tools and sexual promiscuity to modern sophisticated weapons and monogamous marriage. Hence the word progress can be used to designate ‘such a process’

 

 

21) By which man has learned or increased the knowledge of scientific developments by inventions and discoveries. According to Radcliffe-Brown, evolution specifically refers to the process of emergence of new forms of structure. Again this new form of structure can be explained in two ways i.e. biological evolution and social evolution.

 

22) There are certain characteristics of organic evolution in which a small number of organisms have evolved into a large number of organisms and more complex forms of organic structure have come into existence from simpler forms. Similarly, social development in social structure can be defined with the help of two important characteristics according to Radcliffe Brown. In the first place there has been a process by which in the course of history various forms of social structure have evolved from certain forms. In other words, there has been a process of diversification in the society in which the developed forms of social structure have made the social system more complex. Secondly, in the long process of social evolution simple forms of social structure have been largely replaced by complex forms of social structure.

 

23) Radcliffe Brown said that in this sense social evolution is a reality which social anthropologists must study and recognize. He acknowledged that it is difficult for the investigator to classify a structural system in terms of its simplicity or complexity, but he suggested that the detail could be known by studying the extent of social relations. For example, in a primitive social structure we usually find a narrow social sphere consisting of a simple linguistic community, a simple and short political relationship, as well as an economic relationship on the average, bringing the majority of individuals into direct or indirect relations. goes. very narrow range. Thus, in such a society there is greater uniformity in the social roles performed by the members of the society, while there is greater heterogeneity in the more complex forms of social structure.

 

24) Thus, according to Radcliffe-Brown the process of social history is very close to the concept of social evolution and according to him it can be defined as the process by which a wide range system of social structure has evolved from a narrow range system or changed.

25) Stems. He further suggested that the concept of social development needs to be examined, explained and described only in terms of social structure.

26) Radcliffe Brown was a true social anthropologist and a good theorist. He described the theory of social structure from various angles and explained in particular the context of the web of social relations, and emphasized the continuity of social institutions. He also explained the difference between social structure and social organization. He also described the types of social structure; highlights the spatial aspect of social structure; Distinguished between social morphology and social physiology. Finally, he emphasized the importance of language dissemination and the role of economic institutions where members of society are linked at various stages. While discussing the social structure, he also gave his views on the concept of religion, social change, social development etc.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

cultural process

All cultures are naturally predisposed to change as well as to resist change. There are dynamic processes going on that encourage the acceptance of new ideas and things while there are others that encourage unchanging stability. It is likely that social and psychological chaos will result if conservative forces do not resist change.

There are three general sources of influence or pressure that are responsible for both its change and resistance:

• Forces operating within a society
• Changes in the natural environment
• Contact between societies

 

evolutionism

The term ‘development’ describes a process of qualitative change. evolution is

The scholarly activity of describing, understanding, and explaining this process.

For a systematic discussion of the ideas and contributions of evolutionists, they have been classified from two angles. First, the classical evolutionists and the neo-evolutionists; And second, on the basis of their nationality like British, American, German etc. This classification can also be shown through the following table:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Classical Evolutionists                                                                                         Neo-evolutionists

 

 

 

 

 

 

British

 

 

 

American           Continental

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Neo Evolutionist

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Thus, there are three sub-schools of classical evolutionists and two sub-schools of neo-evolutionists, which can be discussed one by one.

 

 

British Classical Evolutionist

 

1) Although there are many Victorian scholars in Great Britain who spoke of a linear form of development of culture, but here Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917), R.R. Marett (1866–1943), James Fraser (1854–1941), McLennan (1827–1888), Henry Main (1822–1888), Herbert Spain • Ser (1820–1903) etc., whose writings on the development of various social institutions Not only has enriched the world anthropology, but has also enriched anthropology itself. A distinctive place for British anthropology on a global scale.

2) (E.B. Tylor (1832-917):

3) Tylor was not an anthropologist by training.

4) (ii) Tylor on the science of culture history

5) Tylor was of the opinion that the study of culture is essentially a historical study, as culture is essentially a historical process. According to him, anthropology is the study of the development of man in the course of history. Tylor’s definition of culture, given below, removed all earlier misinterpretations, and is considered the first scientific way of defining culture, the central theme of anthropology.

6) Tylor says, “Culture or civilization, taken in its broad ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society and Habits are included” (1871). His science of culture history was based on a philosophy of cultural progress which consisted of three phases.

 

7) Savagery, barbarism and civilization. He suggested that these were three universal stages of cultural progress, but he did not consider it to be the driving force of history, but rather used it as a tool for the reconstruction of past conditions.

8) (iii) Tylor’s contribution to the study of primitive religion

9) Although Tylor embraced the whole field of anthropological inquiry, his most extensive treatment was in the field of primitive religion. He began to define religion in such a simple way as to include all its forms, such as “belief in spiritual beings”. He asserted that religion is a cultural universal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

american classical evolutionist

Lewis Henry Morgan (1818–1881)

 

1) Born in 1818 in Auriera, New York, Lewis Henry Morgan studied law in Albany and settled as a lawyer in Rochester. He studied the Iroquois Indians in detail and later formed a society whose members are the guardians of the customs and manners of the Iroquois. The members of this society, under the chairmanship of Morgan Ann, arranged meetings, in which they all wore Iroquois-Indians costumes and costumes.

 

 

2) Since Morgan was in close contact with the Iroquois and many of them often met him, Morgan felt that the cultures of the Iroquois were changing rapidly and that their cultures should be recorded and published before it was too late .

 

3) Thus, visiting and interviewing many Iroquois Indians, Morgan collected a large amount of data and then published in his book “League of the Iroquois” (1851). After the publication of this book, Morgan now occupied an important position in America and came to be regarded as a full-fledged evolutionist.

 

4) His writings brought Morgan an international name and fame and he was universally recognized as an evolutionist. He divided all history into three main phases. (a) barbarism, (b) barbarism and (c) civilization. All these three stages were further linked with economic and intellectual development. According to Morgan, Vandalism was the period before pottery; Barbarism began with the Ceramic Age and civilization came after the invention of letters and writing. Morgan further wrote about this period that “each of these periods has a distinct culture and exhibits a mode of life, more or less, special and peculiar in itself” (1877).

 

5) Continental Evolutionary

6) Among continental evolutionists, who talked about various aspects of the origin of culture, special mention is made of Johann Jakob Bachofen (1815–1877), Adolf Bastian (1826–1905), Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels can go. (1820–1895).

 

7) Neo-evolutionary

8) The classical evolutionists of the nineteenth century mainly talked about or laws, but their conclusions and approaches were modified by the evolutionists of the twentieth century in the light of their new researches and methodological approaches to the origin of culture and hence They are known as Nava. Evolutionary. Among those neo-evolutionists, three scholars can be specially mentioned.

 

9) v. Gordon Childe (of England), U.S.A. Julian Steward and Leslie White, who have made significant contributions to the study of cultural evolution and their research, have recently shed a new light on the various dimensions of the origin of culture.

10) V. Gordon Childe (1892-1957)

11) V.V. Gordon Childe described development in terms of three major

12) Events eg. Invention of food-product ion, urbanization and industrialization. Thus, these “revolutionary

Analyzing the transitions that took place under the influence of “them”, Child presented a holistic view of the evolutionary process delineating its common factors.

13) V. Gordon Childe classified the stages of cultural development with reference to the archaeological findings as follows:

 

 

1. No. Archaeological Period Cultural Development
2. Paleolithic Savagery
3. Neolithic barbarism
4. Dwaparayuga high barbarism
5. Early Bronze Age Civilization

 

Julian. H. Steward (1902–1972)

1) Julian Steward’s contribution to the study of cultural evolution is unique, as he first gave a comprehensive typology of evolutionists based on his methodological studies of different cultural regions of the world. Steward states that cultural evolution can be broadly defined as the search for cultural regularities or laws and further states that there are three specific ways in which evolutionary data can be handled. For example, Unilinear Evolution, Universal Evolution and Multilinear Evolution:

2) Leslie A. White (1900–1975)

3) Leslie White is considered to be America’s most controversial and neo-evolutionist. Though he was a student of Franz Boas, he was a great admirer of Tylor and Morgan and hence, from the very beginning he believed in the progressive course of evolution. In searching for a universal principle to explain the order of evolution, he went a step further than Childe and Steward and considered “energy” for the same.

4) White was of the opinion that culture is basically a survival mechanism and energy is needed to provide man with the things necessary for his continued existence. In the initial stage of human development, man used his body as the major source of energy, but soon he started capturing other natural sources of energy, and used fire, water, wind etc. for his own purposes. Done for

5) His famous book “The Science of Culture” was published in 1949, which brought about a dramatic change in the thinking of evolution.

6) acculturation

7) processes of change in artifacts, customs and beliefs resulting from the contact of two or more cultures. The term is also used to refer to the results of such incorporation and directed change, which can be distinguished depending on the circumstances under which cultural contact and change occur. The learning of ideas, values, conventions, and behavior that is characteristic of a social group. (See socialization.) Sanskritization is also used to describe the results of contact between two or more different cultures; A new, holistic culture emerges, in which Ome

8) Existing cultural features are added, some are lost, and new features arise. Linton, Redfield, Herskovits, and Hoizer give several examples to define acculturation. According to Herskovits, when a child learns to follow his own cultural traditions in the process of development, it is called acculturation.

 

 

9) Within a society, processes leading to change include invention and

10) Assimilation culture loss. Inventions can be either technical or conceptual.

11) The loss of culture is an inevitable consequence of the replacement of old cultural patterns by new ones.

12) Assimilation: Assimilation is the fusion or amalgamation of two different groups into one.

13) Cultural assimilation is the process by which a person or a group’s language and, or culture becomes similar to that of another group. The term is used to refer to both individuals and groups, and in the latter case it may refer to an immigrant diaspora or to native inhabitants who have come to be culturally dominated by another society.

14) Assimilation may involve rapid or gradual change depending on the circumstances. Complete assimilation occurs when new members of a society become indistinguishable from members of another group. Whether or not it is desirable to assimilate to an immigrant group is often disputed by both members of the group and members of the dominant society. Assimilation refers to the absorption and assimilation of culture by another. When the process of assimilation takes place, the people in the two different groups are not in agreement with each other, they become almost indistinguishable.

15) Assimilation is not limited to only one area. It is generally applied to explain the fusion of two different cultural groups. It is a slow and gradual process. The speed of the assimilation process depends on the nature of the contacts. Assimilation is an unconscious process. Mostly unconsciously, individuals and groups discard their original cultural heritage and replace it with a new one. Assimilation is a two-way process. It involves the principle of give and take.

16) Assimilation is possible only when the individual and the group are tolerant of cultural differences o

17) Thers. Assimilation is the end product of social interaction. One factor that helps in complete assimilation is amalgamation which refers to intermarriage of different groups. Complete assimilation is not possible without biological assimilation. Cultural affinities are one of the important factors that facilitate assimilation.

provide the method. Education is another favorable factor for assimilation. Assimilation generally provides a permanent solution to inter-group disputes and differences.

18) spread

19) Diffusionists held that different cultural complexes developed at different times in different parts of the world and later spread to the corresponding parts of the earth. According to him the traits of the culture can lead people to an area where they settle temporarily and can be communicated to the local residents living there. Thus, diffusionists hold that culture has developed in the course of history, not because of evolution, but because of the transmission of culture through historical events and interactions. Such a historical event, which provided a theory for the study of the transmission of culture and the parallels of culture, was called “diffusion”.

 

 

For a systematic discussion of diffusionists and their contributions, we can discuss them as follows:

1. British propaganda,
2. German propaganda,
3. American propaganda.

These three sub-schools of Diffusionists made important contributions to the study of • culture-similarities and a historical dimension of culture.

 

british propaganda

Among the British diffusionists, who mainly pointed to ancient Egypt as the cultural cradle of the world, G.E. Special mention may be made. Smith (1871–1937),

WJ Perry (1887–1949) and W.H.R. Rivers (1864–1922). As his works and findings mainly focused on Egypt, he is also called Egyptologist.

 

William James Perry (1887–1949): WJ Perry’s main aim was to support the theory of diffusion, which was furthered by Smith, although he did good field work in the Malay region and wrote some important books. Perry also visited Cairo and took an interest in archaeological excavations and gave Smith a blind endorsement of his theoretical notions. Perry was greatly influenced by the remains of the Sun Temple in Cairo. He wrote a book “The Children of the Sun”, which was published in 1923 from London.

 

After the publication of this book he became very popular and this book was reprinted many times. Time and was widely read. In this book he emphasized that “the transmission of culture is always accompanied by decline” and that “nothing is truly permanent”. He also pointed out that the elders; The only cultural cradle in the world. Perry’s another book “Gods and the Men” appeared in 1927 • in which he highlighted the concept of supernatural powers of early men.

Willam Hulse Rivers (1864-19.22) • W.H.R. Rivers, like Smith, is a medical doctor by profession and was persuaded by this medical doctor by profession and was persuaded by this extreme diffusionism at the end of his life.

A Polean • Druse tribe of the Nilgiri Hills (India), on River’s classic mography “The Todas”, 1906.

German propaganda

Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904), Fritz Graebner (1877–1934) and the Jesuit Wilhelm Scheinmidt (1868–1954) were the main proponents of this school. German diffusionists are considered superior to their British counterparts. He opposed the oversimplification of evolutionary schemes put forward by classical evolutionists. German

 

 

Diffusionists further pointed out that evolution in the universe is not uniform and this is why a group of people with simple technology may have an advanced social structure or a complex form of worship. Thus, Pro • In contrast to the Egyptians, the German diffusionists established polymorphic forms of development of culture.

 

Thus, the cultural-historical movement, known as Kulturkreij or “culture circles”, was heavily scholastic. His followers examined all cultural traits in detail and with completeness. Sometimes this school is also called Kulturkreij school as it suggested the concept of culture-complex or culture cycle.

 

american school of diffusion

American diffusionists drew encouragement and inspiration from their German counterparts and, therefore, it is said that the American “culture field” theory of diffusion was influenced by the “museum method” of German diffusion.

“Cultural zone” became the dominant theme in American diffusion, besides many concepts like “food zone”, “age zone”, “culture center”, “culture-climax”, etc. were also used to explain the nature.

 

and processes of dispersal in Native America. This school of defuntalism was primarily carried out by Clark Wiesler (1870–1947) and Alfred Louis Kroeber (1876–1947). Both were students of Frans Bose (1858–1942), a leading proponent of evolution in the early twentieth century.

 

acculturation

We can define enculturation as the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that enable them to become functioning members of their societies. native culture.” The process of sanskritization begins at birth. “!” It is a process that occurs automatically and unconsciously, for the most part.

 

Yet everyone agrees that Sanskritization is a very powerful force that changes the context of each individual’s entire life.

The car lays a foundation that influences our life choices in subtle and pervasive ways, for good or for bad. Anthropologists who have studied different cultures have described the various ways that elements of a culture are transmitted to individuals born in that culture. These include things like language use, participating in rituals, telling stories, conveying feelings about certain events, and the day-to-day, moment-to-moment choices and behaviors that one might observe in those around them. .

Cultural assimilation The term cultural assimilation refers to the process of one culture acquiring ideas, technologies, and products from another culture, and therefore implies that this culture may appear to be absorbed into another culture. Cultural integration refers to the interaction of people from different cultures. This integration will involve people with different skills from different religions, professions and ethnic groups. cultural integration

 

 

Takes advantage of existing differences to benefit an organization as a whole. Ruth Benedict believed in the integration of culture through its content. A culture is made up of many patterns, he said, moreover, he showed that the patterns of a culture are harmonious so that they can be bound together in some coherent way. According to him, harmony gave the culture a special style – a unique configuration.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Family

 

There is no such society in the world, where there is no institution called family. It is found in some form or the other in every society. The needs of man which are fulfilled by the family are not possible through other groups or institutions. This is the reason why man feels the need for family and lives in the family. A person is born helpless in this world, but he is brought up in a family and gradually he learns the customs and manners of the society. That is, socialization of a person takes place in the family itself and he becomes a social animal. Although a person keeps learning something or the other throughout his life, but he gets the initial education of social life in the family. So family is the most important center. The existence of the society depends to a great extent on the institution called family. Every society has its own culture, which is passed on by the family from one generation to another. The work of maintaining the continuity of the society and its culture is done by the family only. Thus family is found in every society as a universal institution.

Meaning and Definition of Family

 

The word family is derived from the Latin word ‘Famulus’ which includes parents. Children, servants and slaves are also included. Generally, parents and their children are included in the family. Different words have been used for family in different societies. There is no consensus among sociologists regarding the definition of family. Various scholars have expressed their views in their own words. Some important definitions are being mentioned here

According to Maclver and Page, “Family is a group, which is based on sexual relations. Its size is small and it arranges for the birth and upbringing of children.” They are – (i) group based on sex relations (ii) limited size (iii) birth of children and (iv) their upbringing. This definition also gives information about the structure of the family and its functions.

According to (Ogburn and Nimcoff), “Family is a permanent union of husband and wife with children or a permanent union of a woman or a man living alone with children.” And there are children or a woman or a man lives with the child, that is, even when one of the husband and wife is not there, the union with the children is called family.

While giving the definition of family, Kingsley Davis has said that family is a group of persons, in which people are related to each other on the basis of matrimonial relationship and they are also related to each other by blood.

Gisbert also gave the same definition of family as Ogburn, saying that “Ordinarily a family consists of a permanent relationship between a man and a woman with one or more children.

According to Burgess and Locke, ‘Family is a group of persons, organized by ties of marriage, blood or adoption, forming a household, consisting of husband-wife, parents, son- Daughters and siblings interact with each other for their social functions and create and maintain a common culture.

It is clear from the above definitions that a family is a group of persons organized by marriage and blood relations. There are direct and primary relations between them. It is a sustainable organisation, in which the needs of the people are met and they are bound together by a sense of togetherness. MacIver gave his definition

Sex relations have been described as the basis of the family. Through the institution of marriage, husband and wife are allowed to have sexual relations in the family, as a result of which children are born and the continuity of the society is maintained.

 

 

Characteristics of Family

 

Emotional Basis – Emotional relations are found between the members of the family. The feeling of love, co-operation, sympathy, sacrifice and affection keeps on rising among them. These qualities are not seen in any other committee or organization. The family rests on these emotional foundations. This is also the basis of the close relationship between all the members of the family which gives it stability.

Limited Size – The size of the family is limited. Usually the family consists of husband and wife and their children, but apart from these there are other close blood relatives also. The size of the family depends on the structure of the society. In rural and simple society, the size of the family is relatively large, but in the modern and complex society, the size of the family is getting smaller day by day. Only husband and wife and their unmarried children live in it.

Formative Influence – The family has a formative influence. The family plays a very important role in the formation of a person’s essence. Every society has its own rules and methods which a person learns through the family. Family makes a person compatible with the society. It transforms the individual from a biological being to a social being. The habits and behaviors that a person adopts at the initial stage of life, he does not forget them throughout his life. It becomes the quality of his personality. All the members of the family have a constructive influence on each other.

A Mating relationship – A man and a woman form a family through marriage. This relationship is for a short time or for a lifetime. There is definitely some form of marriage in different societies of the world. Through matrimonial relations, men and women are bound as husband and wife and fulfill the responsibilities of the society. Breakdown of marital relations leads to disintegration of the family.

A form of marriage – There is a form of marriage in every society. It is found in different forms in different places. For example, monogamous family is prevalent in some society and polygamous family in some society. It is clear from this that there is a form of marriage institution, which is prevalent in a particular society. ,

A system of nomenclature Each family is known by a name. This name is called surname or surname. The family is the basis of a person’s lineage. This genealogy runs on the basis of the lineage of the father and the mother.

A common habitation is a common habitation of every family, where all its members reside. Mutual relationship and closeness remains between them only when they reside in a common place. The sense of duty and responsibility also remains active among them. Due to living in a common place, the husband and wife are able to give birth to children and bring them up. All the members of the family work by being inspired by the ‘feeling of us’.

Universality – The family is a universal group. In any society of the world, be it modern or traditional, urban or rural, complex or simple, family is definitely found there. There may be difference in the form of family in different places, but it is definitely found in some form or the other. Human society cannot be imagined without family. Through this the basic needs of man are fulfilled, whose fulfillment is not possible by any other group. Hence family is a universal group

Permanent and temporary nature of family When the family is considered as a group of individuals, then it is temporary and if it is considered as a collection of rules, then it is permanent. If we keep in mind the rules of the family, such as marriage, the rules of inheritance of property, etc., then we find that these rules are always present. In this sense the family is of permanent nature. But when membership is taken into account, then its members can end and be destroyed, such as marriage, separation, death etc. From this point of view the family is temporary. It means to say that the family is permanent as an institution, which is temporary as a society.

 

 

 

 

Types of Family

 

Family is a universal group. It is found in some form or the other in every society. Different forms of family are found in different societies. The form of family is determined according to the culture of the society. The family can be divided on various grounds in the society. Some of the major types are mentioned here

 

Types of Family on the basis of Number of Members

 

Nuclear Family – This type of family consists of husband, wife and their unmarried children. In the modern era, the prevalence of the central family is increasing day by day. Generally their member number is limited to 5-6 only. Under this, other relatives in the family are not included.

As soon as the children get married when they become adults, they become a separate family. The central family is actually a product of industrialization and urbanization.

Joint Family In addition to the central family, close relatives and blood relatives are also included in the joint family. Generally, members of many generations in this type of family live in a common place, their food is also prepared in a kitchen and their property is also collective. Joint family runs according to socialist ideology. Its members earn money according to their ability and power, but it is consumed equally by all the members of the family. It means to say that all the members spend money according to their need. Whether a person produces more or less, everyone is allowed to consume equally. Joint family is the main feature of Indian society. Such families are still found in rural areas. In a joint family, the entire power of the family is concentrated in the head. The chief takes the final decision in all matters. Every member of the family has to accept the decision of the head. Parents do not take decisions regarding the division of property, marriage and education of children, rather the decision of the head of the family is final. The size of such a family is large because the number of members in it is very high.

Extended Family – When the joint family is widely spread, it is called an extended family. Here the inheritance remains the same. The feeling of heredity keeps them tied in a thread. In the extended family, some close generations may also live in one residence and one economic unit, but some are also divided as separate units. This type of structure remains loose and scattered. This family is very popular in the society of Africa.

Mixed Family – A mixed form of characteristics of both nuclear family and joint family is seen in the mixed family. In industrial and urban areas, the family functions in a centralized or isolated form. But theoretically he is bound to the joint family. Despite being a member of a joint family, he leads a lonely life in the cities. As a result, gradually their attachment to the joint family decreases. But the consciousness of joint family remains at the mental level. Because of this, they jointly participate in marriages, social, cultural and religious occasions. In this way, the mixed family is similar to the central family on the economic level and the joint family on the mental level. The number of such families is increasing in the urban areas of India. Their organization and size are of medium level.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Family distinctions on the basis of marriage.

 

(Types of Family on Marriage Basis)

 

Monogamous Family – In this type of family, a woman has a marital relationship with a man. A man or woman is allowed to remarry only after the death of the husband or wife or divorce. The size of a monogamous family is very small. Only husband-wife and their children are involved in this. This family is more prevalent in civilized society. The form of monogamous family is found in most of the societies of the world. Along with progress in civilization, the number of monogamous families is also increasing. Polygamous Family – In this type of family, a woman has a marital relationship with many women of the same sex with many men. From this point of view give polygamous family. is of type

Polygynous Family: In this type of family a man has many wives. That is, a man establishes marital relations with many women at a time. In this type of family, authority and power are in the hands of men. The social and economic status of men is higher than that of women. Generally, when the number of women is more in the tribal society, this type of family is seen. Such families are more common among Muslims because they have religious permission to have more than one wife. Due to the passing of 1955 Marriage Act among Hindus, such families have been banned. But even today the number of polygamous families is more than that of polyandry.

Polyandrous Family: In this type of family a woman has many husbands. At present, the trend of such family is found in the Khas of Jaunsar Babar region (Dehradun) and Tod tribe of Nilgiri. If all the husbands of the woman are brothers, then it is called Fraternal Polyandrous family and if there is no brother-brother or blood relation, then it is called Non-fraternal Polyandrous family. family). In such families, women do not go to their husbands’ homes. Therefore, these families are generally maternal and matrilineal as well. In non-polygamous families, men go to the woman’s house together or on different occasions at the woman’s wish. Polyandry family is practiced in that society where the number of women is very less as compared to men.

Punaluan Family – When many brothers or many men

When a couple marries several women, then such a family group is called a married family. In such a family all the men are equal husbands to all the women.

Types of Family on the basis of Authority

 

Patriarchal Family: In this type of family, the father is the head of the family. The father and the man take the final decision regarding all the matters of the family. Other members of the family follow his orders. Generally, patriarchal family is patrilocal and patrilineal family. After marriage, the wife resides at her husband’s house. The right to property is transferred from father to son. Most of the families in India are patriarchal. Hindus especially have more such families.

Matriarchal Family – In this type of family women are paramount. The status of women in the family is higher than that of men. Only women take the final decision on all matters related to the family and that decision is acceptable to all the members. In such a family, usually women do not go to their husband’s house after marriage, rather the man stays at his wife’s house. Direction and control in any subject is done by the mother. This does not mean that men are deprived of all rights. Men do the work that is worthy of men. Matriarchal family is also matrilineal and matrilocal family. In a matrilineal family, property is passed from mother to daughter. Men have no right on property. In this type of family, the man gets the right, but that man is not the husband of the woman, but her brother. A man gets his rights not from his parents but from his sister. The meaning of saying is that in such families there is primacy of woman or mother. Matriarchal family is prevalent in the Khasi tribe of Assam. Matriarchal families are found among the Nairs of Garo and Malabar. In such a family, the socio-economic status of women is higher than that of men.

 

Types of Family on the basis of Descent

 

Patrilineal Family – The patrilineal family is run by the name of the father’s lineage. After marriage, women adopt the surname of their husbands. , The Hindu family is a patrilineal family. Is

 

Matrilineal Family – The matrilineal family is run by the name of the mother’s lineage. There is no importance of father’s lineage in this. Their children are known by the surnames of women and mothers. In such a family, women do not go to their husband’s house after marriage, rather the man stays at his wife’s house. Daughters get the family name from the mother. This type of family is prevalent among the Nairs of Malabar. Here the lineage of the mother is more important.

Types of Family on the basis of Locality

 

Patrilocal Family – In a patrilocal family, all the members of the family live at the residence of the father or male. After marriage, the wife goes to her husband’s house. The residence of the family – tradition runs from the side of the father or male officer. This type of family is prevalent among Hindus, Muslims and Bhil, Khadiya tribes. Such a family is also patriarchal and patrilineal.

Matrilocal Family – In matrilocal family, all the members of the family live at the residence of the mother or woman. After marriage, the wife does not go to her husband’s house, rather the husband starts living at the wife’s residence, this type of family is also matrilineal and matrilineal. Matrilineal family is found in Nair, Khasi and Garo tribes of Malabar in India. (iii) Neo-Local Family – Such families neither settle at the residence of the husband nor at the residence of the wife, but they settle at a different place from both. In the modern era, such families reside in employment, job and industrial centers where a person works. For example, today’s urban family, the person settles where they get work.

 

 

 

Types of Family on the basis of Relations

 

Consanguineous Family – In this type of family, persons of the same blood establish marriage relations with each other. That’s why it is called similar blood family. This type of family is found in Muslims.

Co-operative family (Conjugal family) – In the co-operative family, persons of different blood establish the relation of husband and wife. That’s why it is called cooperative family. This type of family is considered good from the point of view of fertility science. Such a family is prevalent among Hindus. Cooperative family is prevalent in other civilized societies as well.

 

Functions and Importance of Family

 

The family is a unique organization. It is created automatically and it is also essential for humans. Such tasks and needs of a person are fulfilled by the family, which are not possible to be fulfilled by other organizations. That’s why family has a very important place in human life. The importance of family has been accepted since ancient times. Till date, no such organization has been formed, which is related to the family.

Can take place Hence it is indispensable. As a result of the various functions of the family, man has been able to reach the pinnacle of civilization today. Important functions of the family are being mentioned here.

Social Functions: The family is the smallest unit of the society. As a fundamental unit of the society, it performs many important functions. First, socialization – from the individual to the biological being. The process of turning into a social animal is the process of socialization. The process of socialization starts from the family itself. Parents bring up the children and introduce them to the customs and ideals of the society. Children imitate what they see their parents doing. Gradually children learn the rules of the society and become active as social animals. Second, social control – every society has its own rules and procedures. The society expects its members to behave according to these methods. Human being is such a creature by nature, who starts doing arbitrary things on getting a little exemption. If everyone starts acting arbitrarily, then a situation of disorder will arise in the society. Therefore, the society imposes restrictions on the behavior of its members, so that they act according to the rules. For this, society puts pressure on the behavior of individuals through various means. Family is one of the main means of social control. When a person works in favor of the society, then he is appreciated by the family. If a person acts against the society, then the family members do not recognize him. Therefore, he is motivated and encouraged to act according to social customs.

Cultural Functions – Transfers cultural elements from one generation to another. Children become aware of their culture in the family itself. The elders in the family learn the natural characteristics and then teach them to the new generation. Due to this, the culture of one generation is transferred to another generation and its flow remains. The family tries to teach cultural characteristics to its members. Therefore, the personality of a person is formed according to the culture.

Psychological Functions – The most important function of the family is to provide mental security and satisfaction to its members. Along with physical security, mental security is also necessary for human life. Love, sympathy, sacrifice, patience and harmony are found among the family members. This gives a person emotional security. They give a lot of support to each other even in happiness and sorrow. He never felt lonely. This gives mental satisfaction to the person. In other groups, the person is not able to determine himself mentally and neither does he get mental satisfaction.

Recreational Function – Family is the center of entertainment. All the members of the family get entertained. Small children listen to stories from grandmother and grandmother in the evening, this entertains them. When young people return home tired from outside, half of their tiredness is removed by the tinkling voices of small children. Within the family, people are also entertained through festivals, bhajan-kirtan etc. All the members of the family entertain themselves in their own way. Family is equally important from the point of view of entertainment in rural and urban areas. Now with the prevalence of television, all the members enjoy it together. Even today the family is fulfilling the function of entertainment as before. Apart from this, the family also has a role in the political sphere. It is the work of the family to make an ideal citizen. The family also instructs its members regarding voting. The family also imparts religious education to its members. One or the other religion is definitely followed in every family. In this regard, the family gives knowledge to the members, due to which their life becomes moral and pure.

 

Biological functions – In biological function, the family performs three important functions. Fulfillment of timely needs – Family is the only place where social acceptance is fulfilled. If a person arbitrarily starts fulfilling his sexual needs. Then a situation of disorder will arise in the society. human no longer human animal

Will become The family regulates the sexual behavior of men and women through its institution of marriage and maintains order in the society. Secondly, procreation – not only the sexual needs are fulfilled in the family, but the work of procreation is also done. The society gives recognition only to the child born in the family. The continuity of the society is maintained by the generation of children. In this way, the family works to maintain the existence of the society through child production. Third, the continuity of racial elements – Man maintains the continuity of his racial elements through the family. The human race has become immortal only because of the birth of children. In this way the family does the work of keeping the racial elements alive.

Functions related to physical security

referred to Physical Security) – In addition to biological functions, the family also performs functions related to physical security of its members. Many types of works come under this. Firstly, physical protection – under the family, old, helpless, orphan, widow and sick members get physical protection. If a member of the family becomes crippled and disabled, then he is not removed from the family, if the parents die, then their children are not helpless, but other members take care of them. On the unnatural death of her husband, women do not have to wander door to door. Other family members support him. In this way we see that the family does the work related to the physical protection of its members. In no other group or organization does a person get this type of protection. Second, child rearing – When a child is born, it is just a mannequin of flesh and bones. In the family, the parents prepare him as a nurturer. If there is no family, it will be difficult to bring up children. Compared to other animals, it takes a long time for a human child to stand on its feet. In such a situation, the work of his maintenance is done in the family.

 

Apart from the parents, the elders also take care of the children. Thirdly, arrangement of food – Food is very essential for the existence of the body and its efficiency. The family does the work of arranging food for its members. The family has been doing this work since time immemorial. Thus the main function of the family is to arrange food for its members. Without it, neither a person can survive nor the formation of society is possible. Fourth, arrangement of residence – The family arranges residence for its members. When the residence is arranged, the person’s body is protected from cold, heat and rain. The person feels more secure when the residence is arranged by the family. Fifth, arrangement of clothes – Along with the arrangement of living, it is also necessary to have arrangement of clothes. Warm clothes for winter and light clothes for summer are arranged by the family. It is clear from this that it is the work of the family to arrange clothes according to the season.

Economic Functions: The family is an economic unit. Economic resources are used by the family in the society. In the economic field also important work is being done by the family, first, the production unit – the work of production is done by the family. The family is still the center of economic production in primitive society and rural society. All the members of the family take part in economic activities together. The importance of family as a unit of economic production has started decreasing in urban and industrial areas, but even today it is important in simple society. Second, Division of Labour: The family does the work of division of labor among its members. In the primitive society, the family used to distribute the work among its members on the basis of gender discrimination. Generally women used to take care of the house and children and men used to take care of hunting and outdoor work. baby chores

 

Used to do and elders used to complete the responsible work. Even today there is division of work in the family. The person who deserves the work is entrusted with that work. Generally women do household work and men do outside work. Third, succession determination – The succession of property is determined by the family. Every society has its own rules. According to the culture and ideals of the family, the property is transferred from one generation to the other generation members. It means to say that the family decides who is the rightful heir of the property. In matriarchal matrilineal and matrilineal families, the property is inherited from the mother to the daughter. On the contrary, in patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal families, property is inherited from father to son. In this way the family has been doing the work related to inheritance of property. Fourth, Management of income and property – There is also management of income and property in the family. It is the head of the family who decides on what and how much the income will be spent. If wealth is to be created then what will be its form, i.e. will it be cash or jewelery or land. It means to say that the family manages to spend its income properly.

 

Bierstedt has divided the functions of the family into two parts to make it more clear. In the work that the family does, it does some work for the individual and some for the society. The work done for one affects the other as well. The work done by them can be understood in the following way Work for the person

 

1. Providing facilities for life. work for society
2. Reproduction and continuity of animals.
3. Sexual control.
4. Providing livelihood.
5. Cultural transmission.
6. Providing social position.
7. Providing sexual opportunities.
8. Providing security and support.
9. Socialization.
10. Social identity of the individual

 

 

 

Problems of Family

 

At present, there have been some such changes in the family due to which many problems have arisen in front of it. These problems affect not only social life but

That the existence of the family has also been questioned. The bond between family members has started to weaken. These people, despite appearing together on the outside, remain distant internally. All these things have changed the attitudes, values and thoughts of the family members. As a result, the family is disintegrating, this family disintegration creates a situation of social disintegration. Eliot and Merrill have written – In family disintegration, dysfunction, disharmony and separation are possible in the bond found between family members. That is, the feeling of albad starts emerging among the family members and a situation of disharmony arises, which is called family disintegration.

Martin Neumayer said that family disintegration is a condition in which unanimity among the members of the family ends, feelings like self-sacrifice, cooperation and love are not found. They are with each other. feel different. Family awareness ends between them. Some of the major problems facing the family today are as follows

Increase in the spirit of individualism and selfishness – The modern era is the era of individualism and selfishness. The basis of family life is not selfishness, but sacrifice and sacrifice. Today people have become selfish. People think about personal interest and profit instead of thinking about general interest and profit. In such a situation, there has been a decrease in familiarity and closeness between the members of the family, family bonds have started weakening, along with it, the bond of kinship is also getting loose. As a result, different types of problems are arising in the family. The person has started taking interest in the nuclear family by separating from the joint family.

The competition for physical comforts – urbanization, industrialization and multiplicity of businesses have provided different types of opportunities in front of the people and on the other hand have also affected the general life style. Today husband and wife work in a corporate house. There is no fixed period for their work there. When they come back home late in the evening or at night, there is not enough communication between themselves and with the children. Children do not get the care and love they should get from their parents. His children came. , They grow up with the help of crèches, baby sitting and boarding schools. That kind of emotional in such children. Relationships do not develop as in foster children between family members.

Divorce problem – There has been a fundamental change in the basis of marriage in the present day family. Earlier marriage was considered a religious sacrament. But today it has become a compromise. This has weakened the marriage relationship and has increased the chances of divorce between husband and wife. Census data shows that the process of divorce has increased in India. Earlier divorce was limited to the lower castes but today it is being found in every section of the society. Divorce weakens the organization of the family and ultimately leads to disintegration.

Limited family size The family size is getting smaller day by day. Joint family system was prevalent in ancient and rural India. As a result of industrialization, urbanization, modern education and women’s liberation movement, people’s faith in joint family system has started decreasing. Due to abundance of employment and business opportunities, people started working in different areas. As a result of this type of mobility, the joint family has started breaking up and the form of family has become limited to husband, wife and their children.

Development of Alternative Institutions Many such institutions have emerged in the society today, which perform the traditional functions of the family very well. Needs like fulfillment of sexual desires, upbringing of children and social security are now being fulfilled not only within the family but also outside the family. Due to this, there is a lack of emotional and emotional relations between the members of the family. In the end, it creates a situation of family disintegration.

Difference of social values When different members of the family have different values, then a situation of family disintegration arises. In the present era, in every family there is a struggle between the new generation and the old generation regarding social values. The elders of the house insist on following the old traditions, ideals and values of their times, while the youth of the new generation consider them useless, illogical and useless. Such conflicts create a situation of family disintegration.

Apart from the above problems, today’s family has another serious problem – old age and disability. In a large family, the responsibility of taking care of sick, helpless, handicapped, orphans, widows and destitute persons was considered a collective responsibility rather than that of an individual. The old man and the handicapped all lived a normal life with 2 people. Desolation, emptiness and lack of feeling of disdain was found in his life. They felt a sense of love and sympathy towards themselves from the members which inspired them to live, to be happy and to be busy.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Marriage

 

 

There are different purposes of marriage in different societies: for example, in Christian religion, the main purpose is sexual satisfaction, then in Hindu society, to protect religion or to perform religious rites, the purpose of marriage in Muslim societies.

To give birth to a legitimate progeny, while the tribal purpose is a social agreement to live together. But the sociological objective is to give a status to men and women and discharge the roles accordingly. Marriage is an arrangement of union between a man and a woman. This union is based on social acceptance, which is accomplished through various rites and ceremonies. For balance in this system, husband and wife have to perform many roles (tasks) in their lives. Its meaning can be known more clearly through some key definitions, definitions of marriage:

 

Bogards “Marriage is the institution of man and woman entering into the family life.”

 

In the words of Westermarck (E. Westermarck), “Marriage is a relation between one or more men and women which is recognized by custom or law and includes the rights and duties of both the parties entering into this union and the children born to them.” “This definition has highlighted four facts – (a) marriage is a relationship between a man and a woman, (b) this relationship is recognized by custom or law, (c) marriage is a relationship between a woman and a man. or between one man to several women or one woman to several men or several women to several men, and (d) relations of rights and duties between husband, wife and children.

 

According to R. Lowie, “Marriage refers to those approved organizations which exist even after the satisfaction of sexual relations and later comes as the foundation stone of family life. “This definition reveals four things – (a) marriage is an association in which men and women meet as husband and wife, (b) this association is approved by the society, (c) it is legitimate for sexual gratification. medium, and (d) it is the basis of entry into family life.

 

Gillin and Gillin have written, “Marriage is a socially (recognized) method of establishing a procreative family. “This definition mentions three things – (a) Marriage is a method of uniting a man and a woman,

 

Majumdar and Madan “Marriage gets legal, religious and social sanction. By this two different sexes are recognized to establish sexual relations.

 

“Johnson” marriage is a permanent relationship in which a man and a woman receive social approval to produce children without losing their status in the community. ,

 

Murdock defines marriage as “living together having regular sexual relations and financial support.”

 

Gillin and Gillin “Marriage is a socially accepted means of establishing a procreative family.”

Malinowski defines marriage as a contract.

 

Lowy has called “marriage a firmer relationship than legitimate partners.” “Marriage is the fountain pen head of the kinship system.”

,

Lassie Meyer “Marriage is such a combination of a man and a woman in which the child born of a woman is considered the legal child of the parents. “Marriage is a contract for the procreation and care of children. ,

Against and Groovy “Marriage is the public acceptance and legal registration of living together as partners.” Reverse “The means by which human society regulates sexual relations may be called marriage.”

 

Features of Marriage:

 

-social Security

– transfer of culture from one generation to another

– legal progeny

, To give birth to new rights, responsibilities and roles in parents and children

, It serves religious, social and cultural purposes. Westermark has considered marriage as a social institution as well as an economic institution.

Marriage is a relationship between two heterosexuals.

.- Marriage is a universal social institution.

Through this, marriage regulates relations.

, Child rearing and socialization

– economic cooperation

– Mental Safety

 

 

purpose of marriage

 

Murdock has given three purposes of marriage by doing a comparative study of 250 societies.

 

(i) sexual satisfaction

(ii) Economic cooperation

(iii) Upbringing and socialization of children

 

Gillin and Gillin have given five purposes of marriage.

 

(i) Regulation of sexual relations

(ii) procreation

(iii) Economic cooperation

(iv) Emotional relationship

(v) Establishment of lineage and kinship

 

Malinowski has given three purposes of marriage.

 

(i) Zoological purpose

(ii) Cultural purpose

(iii) Psychological objectives Robin Fox has also given the following three objectives

(iv) Legitimate sexual satisfaction

(v) Protection of culture

(vi) Emotional satisfaction

 

 

 

Mazumdar and Madan have given the following four objectives.

(1) Establishment of the house

(ii) Entering into sexual relations

(iii) breeding

(iv) rearing of children

 

Majumdar and Madan, while discussing the objectives, have written that “marriage leads to sexual satisfaction at the individual level or at the physical level and at the psychological level to have children and at the social level to attain position.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

HINDU MARRIAGE

 

Marriage has been accepted as a sacrament among Hindus. Kapadia writes, “Hindu marriage is a sacrament. Hindu and

Kapadia writes, “The aims of Hindu marriage are Dharma, Praja (progeny) and Rati (joy).”

 

The objectives of Hindu marriage are –

(i) fulfillment of religious functions,

(ii) getting a son,

(iii) Rati Anand,

(iv) Development of personality,

(v) Fulfillment of obligations towards the family,

(vi) Fulfillment of duties towards the society.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Forms of Hindu Marriage

 

Eight forms of marriage are considered among Hindus:

(1) Brahmin marriage – In this, a well-versed bridegroom, well-versed in the Vedas, is invited to the house and a girl is presented with clothes and ornaments.

(2) Divine marriage – In this, the host donates his daughter to the priest who performs the yagya.

(3) Arsh Vivah – In this the father takes a pair of cow and bull and donates his daughter to the sage.

(4) Prajapatya marriage – In this the girl’s father orders that both of you should live together and practice dharma for life. then donates

(5) Gandharva marriage – This is the love marriage of the present.

 

(6). Asura Vivah – In this, the bridegroom marries by giving money to the bride’s father.

(7) Rakshasa Vivah – In this the girl is forcibly taken away and married to her.

(8) Paishach Vivah – In this a sleeping, frantic, nervous, inebriated girl is raped and married.

 

 

 

 

 

Marriage In Muslims

 

(Nikah) is a social contract. In these, marriage is called ‘Nikah’, which literally means sexual intercourse between a man and a woman. Muslim marriage is not a religious ceremony but a contract. Whose purpose is to establish a home, to have children and to declare them valid. ,

 

 

 

 

 

Aims of Muslim Marriage

 

To give valid consent to establish sexual relations between men and women.

Giving birth to children and bringing them up.

– Giving acceptance to the mutual rights of husband and wife through ‘Mehr’.

In the form of a contract, giving the right to husband and wife that if one party does not perform the contract, the other party can leave it.

Keeping in mind the upbringing of children, recognition has been given to the practice of polygamy in the Muslim society.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

types of marriages

(Types of Marriage)

 

Marriage is universal, but its nature, purpose, ideal and form are not the same. The common types of marriage found on the basis of the number of husband and wife are as follows:

 

1. Monogamy: When a man or a woman enters into a marital relationship as a life partner, it is called a marriage. Today a marriage is considered the most important thing. The present Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 recognizes monogamy only.

 

2 . Polygamy: When more than one man or woman establishes a marital relationship, it is called polygamy. There are three forms of polygamy –

(i) polygamy, (ii) polyandry, and (iii) group marriage.

 

(i). Polygyny: When a man marries more than one woman, it is called polygyny. It was prevalent in the early Hindu society. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. , After that it has decreased a lot. It is prevalent among Muslims. It is also prevalent in some tribes of India (Naga, Gond, Baiga, Toda etc.).

(ii). Polyandry: When a woman marries more than one man, it is called polyandry. An important example of this is the marriage of Draupadi with the five Pandavas in the Mahabharata period. In modern times, this practice is prevalent among the Nairs of South India.

 

There are two forms of polyandry marriage (a) fraternal polyandry and (b) non-fraternal polyandry.

 

(a). Fraternal Polyandry: When a woman marries more than one man who is a brother, it is called Fraternal Polyandry. The marriage of Draupadi and five Pandavas is an example of this. Also, it has been prevalent in the Khas and Toda tribes of India.

 

(b). Non-fraternal polyandry: When a woman marries more than one man, those men are not brothers, then it is called non-fraternal polyandry. Its trend has been in Toda and Nair castes. Group Marriage: When a group of men marries a group of women, it is called group marriage. Evolutionary thinkers believe that this form of marriage may have existed in the early stage of family and marriage, but today it cannot be found anywhere. In this way, many types of marriage have been found, but at present only one marriage is prevalent among Hindus. In special circumstances polygamy is seen.

 

 

 

due to monogamy

 

(i) Equal number of women and men in the society.

(ii) Avoidance of family conflict or stress

(iii) Economic factors

(iv) The entry of others in married life is not accepted.

(v) Hindu Marriage Act,

 

By 1955 only one marriage was compulsorily implemented. Benefits of monogamy (i) Best marriage (ii) Husband and wife personally responsible for children (iii) Mutual cooperation between man and woman. (iv) The status of women becomes high.

(v) Reduction in the number of children. (vi) Husband-wife away from mental tension and conflict. According to evolutionary theory, the practice of monogamy is the most recent and modern practice. Westermark has considered monogamy as the primitive form of marriage.

 

According to Malinowski, monogamy is, was and will be the true form of marriage. Polygamy or polygamy is a marriage in which a man or woman marries more than one woman or man. Its four types are found.

 

benefits of polygamy

(1) Due to polygamy, the sexual desires of lustful men are fulfilled in the family itself. That’s why corruption and immorality do not increase in the society.

(ii) Marriage of all is possible if the number of women is more.

(iii) When there are many women, the upbringing of children and the care of the house are easily done.

 

(iv) Polygamy marriages are found in most of the rich and prosperous people of the society. Therefore, the children born from such marriages are physically and mentally strong.

 

disadvantages of polygamy

(i) Women’s time is often wasted in quarrels. (ii) Increase in population. (ii) Due to many wives, the husband is not able to take care of all of them properly. (iv) The social status of women falls. (v) Increase in the number of widows. (i) Promiscuity flourishes in the society due to the inability of the male to satisfy all the females sexually.

 

 

reasons for polyandry

 

(1) Its main reason is economic activity or poverty. When a single man is not able to maintain women and children, then many men join together to maintain them.

(ii) Excess of bride-price. Due to the practice of bride price, girls in the ‘Ho’ tribe remain virgins for the longest time.

(iii) Due to the desire to keep the population limited, polyandry marriage is followed because the number of children in such marriages is less. granddaughter

(iv) To prevent division of property. Of

(v) Geographical conditions – Where Toda and Khas live, lack of cultivable land is found.

(vi) Religious reasons – The Khas of Dehradun consider themselves the descendants of Pandavas and they follow the Draupadi marriage system.

(vii) According to Westermark, the main reason for polyandry marriage is an imbalanced form of sex ratio. (viii) ‘Sumner’, ‘Cunningham’ and ‘Saxena have considered poverty as the main reason for polygamy.

 

 

 

benefits of polyandry marriage

 

 

(i) Non-distribution of property

(ii) less number of children,

iii) Economic cooperation – Disadvantages of polyandry marriage (i) Development of sterility. (ii) More male children due to which there is a decrease in the number of girls. – Tani (iii) The condition of women is pathetic. (iv) The number of widowers in the society is high. (v) Growth of sexual diseases in women.

Willing Sibling Marriage

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Importance or Functions of Marriage

 

Basis of Family Life: The family is formed on the basis of marriage. That is why marriage has been called the gateway to the family. Exchange of love and affection becomes possible in the family environment. The family established through the institution of marriage is that unique place where a person fulfills all his physical, mental, social and economic desires and becomes a worthy citizen of the society.

 

, Helpful in Satisfaction of Sex: Sexual desire is the natural quality of human being, which a person gets with birth. Fulfillment of this desire is necessary in the context of a healthy human being. The fulfillment of this desire of human becomes possible through marriage system. Fulfillment of sexual desire without marriage is to generate lust. Hence, marriage is a socially accepted arrangement for the fulfillment of sexual desire.

 

, Legitimization of Children: Through the marriage system, children get legitimacy. In this system, the children born as a result of sexual relations between two men and women are accepted by the society. Also, the child and their parents get a certain social status. Children can be born even without marriage, but this child will be considered illegal. Then the child and the concerned parents do not get social prestige. Therefore children born out of wedlock are considered legitimate.

 

Helpful in Social Continuity: Every society makes arrangements to bring up the next generation to maintain its existence and continuity. The marriage system performs this important function of the society. In Hindu society, special importance has been given to family growth and family continuity and this work has been linked to religion.

 

Development of Kinship Relationships: New relatives are developed through marriage system. This increases the scope of kinship relations of a person. A person before marriage is related to the parent family (in which he was born and brought up). After marriage, he is related to the birth family. As a result, a person connects with his blood relatives as well as other relatives (mother-in-law, father-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, sister-in-law etc.) after marriage. Marriage as a determinant of kinship co-arrangement by H. M. Johnson

is accepted.

 

Social Prestige: Marriage is a sign of social prestige. Marriage – Celebration is the most important celebration of life. The pomp with which the ceremony is organized on this occasion, is indicative of the fact that marriage is a means of achieving social prestige. At the same time, marriage has been considered as the biggest Yagya of the family. After completing this Yagya, the prestige of the family is protected.

 

Helpful in Socialization of Individuals: Marriage teaches to adapt to two different ideologies, traditions, living-tolerance, life-style etc. At the same time, it promotes sacrifice and instills loyalty to mutual duty. When two men and women are related as husband and wife through the marriage system, then their socialization starts. This makes family life healthy and strong on the one hand, and on the other a healthy personality is formed. Thus marriage plays an important role in the socialization of an individual. 0 8 . Helpful in Transmission of Culture : Sanskriti Samaj

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Kinship

 

 

The literal meaning of kinship is relation. This relationship can be between two or more persons only. The members of the society are bound by various relations. These include blood relations, marriage relations and distant relations. When these relations have got social recognition, then it is called kinship system. Every adult person belongs to two families,

First parent family – in which he was born and brought up.

Second generation family – which was created by marriage. Thus a person is related to two families. Kinship system is formed from these relationships.

 

Charles Winick, while defining kinship in the Anthropological Dictionary, has written, “The kinship system includes those relations recognized by the society, which are based on approximate and blood-relationships. “It is clear from this definition that kinship systems are recognized by the society. These systems are both real and imaginary. The meaning of imaginary is the practice of adoption.

 

It is written in Notes and Queries on Anthropology, “Kinship is the relation which is known actually or inferred by the relations of parents and their children or siblings. This statement shows that the kinship system is certainly based on blood-relationships. Along with this, the artificial and assumed relations which have got the recognition of the society, they also come in kinship relations.

 

A . R . Brown (A. R. Brown) has written, “Kinship is a lineage relationship accepted for social purposes and it is the basis of the customary form of social relationship known from the definition that in the kinship group the lineage comes after the family. The members of the clan are relatives.It has got social recognition.

 

According to Levi-Strauss, “Kinship system by descent or blood relation,” Kinship system is not created by the karmic formulas of descent or blood relation which the person gets, it exists in the human consciousness, it is present in the thoughts. It is a nirkur system, not a spontaneous development of the actual situation. “Levi-Stas believes that kinship includes both zoological relations and socially recognized relations. Kinship should not be considered based only on blood relations, because where there is a tradition of accepting adopted sons and daughters, they are included in kinship. Huh .

On the basis of the above description, the concept of kinship system can be understood on the following four grounds:

 

1. The basis of kinship system is both blood relation and marriage relation.

2 . Also, the basis of its creation can be adopted son or daughter, while they are not real blood relatives.

3. Kinship relations are related to social beliefs.
4. Variation can be seen in the nature of the kinship system because social beliefs are not the same in all societies. Thus, it can be said that the kinship system is based on blood relations, marriage relations and social beliefs.

 

Kinship Categories

 

1. Primary Kins: Primary relatives are called the parent family and the persons related to the generative family. Parental family is the one in which a person is born and grows up. Thus father, mother, sister and brother became the primary relatives of a person. A natal family is one to which a person is related by marriage. Thus husband and wife. The son and daughter are the primary relatives of the person. Dubey has mentioned total 8 types of relations as primary relatives. These are husband-wife, father-son, father-daughter, mother-son, mother-daughter, brother-brother, sister-sister and brother-sister. All these relations are related to blood and marriage.

 

2 . Secondary Kins: The primary kin of a person’s primary kin is called secondary kin. For example – father is our primary relative. The primary relative of our father is his father. Here father’s father means grandfather is called our secondary relative. same father

Mother i.e. grandmother, mother’s father i.e. maternal grandfather, mother’s brother i.e. maternal uncle etc. are secondary relatives. Yes . P . Murdock (G. P. Murdock) has mentioned 33 types of secondary relatives.

 

3. Tertiary Kins: The primary kin of a person’s secondary kin is called tertiary kin. Means primary relative of secondary relative is called tertiary relative. For example – father is our primary relative. Father’s father means grandfather is our secondary relative. grandfather’s father i.e. grandfather our tertiary

Called relatives. Similarly grandmother’s mother, grandfather’s brother, grandfather’s sister etc. are tertiary relatives. Yes . P . Murdock has mentioned a total of 151 types of tertiary relatives.

 

 

 

 

 

Types of Kinship

 

 

Two main types of kinship are told which are prevalent in almost all societies. These are marriage-based kinship and blood-based kinship.

1. Affinal Kinship: The relationships that emerge from socially or legally valid matrimonial relationships are called marriage-related kinship. Relatives related in this form are called Affinal Kins. For example – after marriage, a man or woman not only becomes husband or wife, but also develops other relationships. Husband of a man as well as son-in-law, brother-in-law. Formation of brother-in-law, warts etc. In the same way a woman becomes wife as well as son-daughter-in-law, sister-in-law, aunt, sister-in-law etc. Every relation is between two persons. Like – brother-in-law-sister-in-law, sister-in-law-brother-in-law, mother-in-law-son-in-law, husband-wife etc. In this way, the kinship generated by marriage is called marriage-oriented kinship.

 

2 . Consanguineous Kinship: Kinship based on blood relation is called consanguineous kinship. Relatives related in this form are called blood relatives. For example, the relationship between parents and children, the relationship between two brothers, the relationship between two siblings, etc. In this context, it is to be known that not only biological facts are important in determining blood-based kinship, but social recognition is also important. Like – the practice of adoption is universal. Adopted sons and daughters are treated everywhere as if they are biologically born children. Similarly D. N. Mazumdar and T. N. Madan (D. N. Majumdar and T. N. Madan) say that in many primitive societies the father’s role in the birth of a child is unknown. An example of this can be seen in the life of the Trobriand Islanders of Melanesia, in whom the wife’s husband is traditionally considered the father of the child. In this way, the social recognition in the kinship system is superimposed on the biological fact.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Kinship Terminology

 

 

The first significant contribution to the study of kinship terminology was made by L. H. Morgan (L. H. Morgan). He studied the kinship nouns prevalent in all parts of the world and divided them into two main types – classified kinship nouns and specific or descriptive kinship nouns.

1. Classificatory Kinship Terms: When several relatives of the same class are addressed by the same noun or term of address, then it is called classificatory kinship terms. For example – in Sema Nagas, the word ‘Aja’ is used for mother, aunt, aunt etc. In villages, the word Aja is used for mother, aunt, aunt etc. The father of the word ‘up’ is for uncle, warts etc. Along with this, people of different generations and different genders are also addressed with the same noun. Grandfather, maternal grandfather by the word ‘hapu’ in the Kuki tribe. Brother-in-law, maternal uncle, brother-in-law and nephew means relatives of three generations are addressed. In Angami Nagas, the word ‘Bari’ is used to address elder brother, wife’s sister, aunt, etc., ie relatives of different genders.

 

2 . Particularizing or Descriptive Kinship

 

Mazamdar and Madan say that ‘specific or descriptive kinship nouns are indicative of actual relationship. And are used only for those specific persons in whose context or to whom it is spoken to be addressed. For example – in Hindu society the word father is used for a person who has given birth to us. Similarly mother, wife, son, daughter etc. are such nouns which are used only for a particular relative. Majumdar and Madan say that there is no area in the world where either pure graded kinship nouns or pure specific kinship nouns are used.

 

 

 

Kinship Usages

 

 

The behavior patterns that are included between two relatives in the kinship system are called customs of kinship. These rituals are of different types. In fact, there is not the same way of dealing with all the relatives, nor is the basis of the behavior the same. A person’s behavior towards parents is related to respect. Then the behavior towards the wife is of love, of affection towards the children and of sweetness towards the sister-in-law. Since relatives

There is a difference in the basis of behavior and behavior with, so the rituals of kinship are also different. the main ones are

 

The practice of avoidance is popular. According to this custom, there are some relatives who establish a certain relationship between two persons, but instruct that they stay away from each other and do not participate in mutual interaction as much as possible. For example – son-bride and mother-in-law-father-in-law, sister-in-law and brother-in-law, etc. have a common practice of avoidance. Similarly, the practice of avoiding mother-in-law and son-in-law is found in the Yukadhir tribe.

 

Joking Relationship: Joking relationship is common in the kinship system. This is the custom, which binds two people in a sweet relationship and gives both the right to laugh and joke with each other. For example, banter-relationships are found between brother-in-law-sister-in-law, brother-in-law-sister-in-law, father-granddaughter, nephew-aunt etc. Ridiculous relations between brother-in-law-sister-in-law and brother-in-law-sister-in-law can often be seen in every society. But the banter-relationship between grandfather-granddaughter and nephew-aunt is the specialty of primitive societies. While nephew-aunt banter is prevalent in the Hopi tribe, in the Oraon and Baiga tribes, the banter-relationship is found between grandmother-grandson and grandfather-granddaughter.

 

, Matuleya (Avunculate): Matuleya practice is the specialty of matriarchal societies. When a maternal uncle occupies a prominent place in the life of his nephews, is the basis of their intimacy, performs the responsibility of maternal uncle more than the father, has special loyalty of nephews to maternal uncle, transfer of property from maternal uncle to nephew , then such a kinship system is called Matuleya. Such authority of the maternal uncle is called maternal authoritarianism. If cousins and nieces grow up living in maternal uncle’s house, then this situation would be called matrilocal residence. Its prevalence has been seen in the Haida tribe, Trobriand tribe, Hopi and Juni tribe etc. of North-West America.

 

, Amitate: This is the characteristic of patriarchal societies. When an aunt (father’s sister) occupies a special place in the life of her nephews and nieces as compared to the father, performs special responsibility in the interest of the children, such a practice is called Pitrishveya (Amitate). It is prevalent in the tribes of India’s Toda, Bax Island, South Africa.

 

Secondary Address (Tecnonymy): The English word for anonymity is derived from the Greek language. The credit for bringing it first in social science is E. B. Tyler ( E . B . Tylor ) . In many Hindu families it is not customary for the wife to take her husband’s name when addressing a relative rather than through a person. In such families, the wife addresses her husband by adding it to another name (anunaam). It can be son-daughter or other relatives in the form of surname. If the son’s name is Shanu, then the husband is addressed as Shanu’s father. Tyla has mentioned 30 tribes in his study, where it is prevalent. In these tribes mainly come Becheyana of South Africa, Crow of Western Canada, Khasi of India, Gold of Siberia etc.

 

, Co-birth or cauvade: Co-birth of kinship is known as a unique practice. When a woman who gives birth to a child, along with her husband, is also forced to live a life of hardship, it is called Sahakashti. Its prevalence has been seen in the Khasi and Toda tribes of India and outside India. According to this custom, the husband has to eat the same food as his pregnant wife, follow all the prohibitions and experience pain.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Importance of Kinship

 

 

Kinship plays an important role among Hindus. Its importance can be seen in daily life, in various socio-cultural-religious rituals, in social gatherings and in troublesome situations. The structure of any society and the mutual relations of individuals can be known through the system of kinship. A person’s lineage, succession, status etc. is determined by kinship. Its importance can be understood as follows

1. Status Determination: The status of a person in every society is determined largely on the basis of his relatives. The history of one’s lineage can be known with the help of kinship. Along with this, the number of relatives is known through this. Through the number of relatives, the power of a particular dynasty and clan is known, due to which the status of a person is determined. In some traditional societies, the wider form of kinship is considered a sign of prestige.

 

2 . Basis of Family and Marriage: Morgan has considered Kinship Terminology as the basis for understanding the origin and development of family and marriage system. Kinship terms give a sense of closeness and distance between individuals. Relatives play an important role in the selection of a life partner for a boy or a boy’s marriage. Also, the family is an integral part of the larger system of kinship relations. families

The social relations between the members are based on kinship obligations.

 

3. Mental Satisfaction: The feeling of kinship gives mental satisfaction. This type of tendency is found in people not only in simple and rural societies, but also in modern urban societies. Migrants in the city feel more satisfied and secure in the proximity of their places of residence.

 

4. Unlimited Responsibility: The role of kinship group in social life is such that almost all the individuals perform unlimited responsibilities towards each other. On the one hand, it is beneficial for the relatives, and on the other hand, in the kinship groups, the person is trained to perform the role and responsibilities of the other person. In kinship people help each other and

 

5. Social Security: The Natdara group provides social security to the individual. It is known when a person is in a state of crisis. In such a situation, facilities to go are provided. Because of the kinship group, the kinship provides mental peace and happiness to the lonely and helpless person on the occasion of ceremonies – Mundan, Upanayan, marriage etc.

 

6. Solidarity in Social Organization: Kinship system strengthens social organization.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social Institutions In Primitive Society

 

marriage

Marriage is an institution that enables men and women to enter into family life. John Levy and Ruth Monroe marry because of the feeling that being in a family is the only proper, truly possible way to live. People marry not because it is their social duty to maintain the institution of the family or because the scriptures recommend marriage, but because they lived in a family as children and could not get over the feeling that Living in a family is the only proper way to live life. Society.

The family appears as a result of marriage and it continues through marriage. According to Westermark “marriage is a more or less durable relationship between male and female castings beyond the act of reproduction until after the birth of the offspring”. Marriage enables a child to have a socially recognized father and mother. Renowned anthropologist R. Lowy said that the two major motives behind marriage were the ‘universal purpose of establishing a family and the constant need for companionship in the daily routine of life’.

Therefore marriage is a permanent legal union between a man and a woman. It is an important institution without which the society can never survive.

form of marriage

At present two forms of marriage are evident in human society.

One. Monogamy means marriage of one man to one woman.

1. Polygamy is the marriage of one man or woman with two or more partners. Polygamy can be of two types polygamy and polyandry. Polygamy means marriage of one man to many women. Polyandry refers to the marriage of one woman with several men.

Matrilocal residence i.e. the practice of a man living in his wife’s house is also in favor of polygamy.

The marriage of a man with two or more sisters at a time is called sororal polygyny. When the co-wives are not sisters, the marriage is called non-consanguineous polygamy. Andamanese, Kanikkar, Urali, etc. The tribes show a high incidence of sororal polygamy.

Polyandry is also of two types – adelphic or fraternal and non-fraternal. When the husbands are brothers, it is called fraternal polyandry. In contrast to this is non-fraternal polyandry. The Toda and Khasa tribes favor fraternal polyandry, while some Tibetans and Nairs practice non-fraternal polyandry.

 

 

Monogamy is considered the most modern form of marriage.

mate selection

One cannot marry whomever one wants in the society. There are some strict rules and regulations. The first criterion for establishing a marriage relationship is the idea of the group itself.

exogamy

This is the rule by which a man is not allowed to marry someone from his own social group. Such forbidden union is named as incest. Incest is often considered a sin. Various scholars have tried to find out the explanation behind this prohibition. That is, how did the taboo of incest come into vogue.

In fact, there are certain reasons due to which the practice of exogamy was accepted. they are:

(a) The concept of blood relation is prevalent among the members of a group. Therefore, marry with

Group-members are considered to be married between brother and sister.

(b) Due to close association in a small group the attraction between male and female is lost.

(c) There is a popular view that if marriage binds two very distant persons, between whom there is no kinship, a great increase of energy and vigor is possible in the progeny.

Hindus do not choose their marriage partners by their gotro-names. It is believed that “gotro” refers to a large group where the members are descended from a common ancestor. Gotra is exogamous by nature.

consanguineous marriage

It is the rule, which compels the members of a group to marry within the group. All the tribes and caste groups of India are endogamous.

 

 

Taboo: An incest taboo is universal feature in the world which means prohibition on sexual intercourse as in all societies between parents and children or close relatives between siblings

The middle is found. among the primitive peoples of the world. The incest ban encouraged marriage outside one’s own social group and thus helped members of different groups to form a larger cooperative group.

 

 

Arranged and Preferential Marriage

In many societies, marriages between first cousins are allowed or demanded. When a man is solely meant to marry a particular category of person, it is called an arranged marriage. in some

 

 

There is no compulsion in societies, but people consider some association desirable. Such marriages are known as preferential marriages. There are three types of marriages prevalent in this regard.

1. Cross-Cousin Marriage

This concept was first formulated by Tylor in 1888. It is a marriage that takes place between cousins whose parents are brothers and sisters. The person’s cousins are therefore, on the one hand the children of his father’s sister, and on the other the children of his mother’s brother. This type of marriage relationship has been observed in tribes like Uraon, Toto, Kadar Gond, Kharia etc. A marriage in which the selection of a cousin is not restricted is called an asymmetric type of cross-cousin marriage. Here a man is free to marry any girl he wants, either father’s sister’s daughters or mother’s brother’s daughters.

 

 

2. Parallel Cousin Marriage

When marriages take place between the children of siblings of the same sex, it is called parallel cousin marriage. The mate may come either from the children of one’s father’s brother or from the children of one’s mother’s sister. This type of marriage is found in the Muslim community. Generally in a community, where cross-cousin marriage is permitted, parallel-cousin marriage is prohibited.

3. Levirate and Sororate

Cultural norms in many societies often compel individuals to marry a sibling of a deceased spouse. The Latin word “levir” means husband’s brother. When a woman marries her husband’s brother after her husband’s death, the practice is called levirate. Kuki, Santhal tribes follow it.

The custom by which a man is bound to marry the sister of his deceased wife is called sororate marriage. The Latin word “sorr” means sister. There are two types of sorority, restricted and non-restricted. Restricted is the real form. But sometimes during the wife’s lifetime, the husband marries his sister – this is called non-restrictive sorority. A man marries several women, which is called sororal polygyny. Andamanese, Uralis, Kanikars, Santhals also do the same.

hypergamy or anuloma marriage

It is a situation where a high caste man marries a low caste woman. For this unequal match a man does not at all lose his caste status or ritual purity. But her children suffer greatly; They partially lost their hereditary status but this type of marriage was sanctioned by Hindu social customs in ancient India.

 

 

hypogamy or reverse marriage

It is a situation where a lower caste man marries a higher caste woman. Although this type of matching was sometimes apparent, it failed to gain social acceptance. Because after such a marriage a woman was considered religiously impure to lose her original caste status. ,

 

ways to get life partner

 

1. Marriage by capture
2. Marriage by trial
3. Marriage by purchase
4. Marriage by exchange
5. Marriage by Service
6. Marriage by Negotiation
7. Marriage by elopement
8. Marriage by infiltration
9. Marriage on probation.

 

1. a) marriage by capture

 

It is a kind of marriage in which the girl is forcibly taken away against her will. Consent is also not taken from his guardian or close relatives. This type of marriage was once prevalent in all primitive communities. Manu, the ancient legislator of Hindu society, called this type of marriage ‘Rakshasa marriage’ and mentioned it as an accepted way of securing a wife among Hindus. Tribes like Bhil, Gond, Ho etc used to practice it widely. Currently, this practice has been modernized in anticipation of punishment from the court. Between Kharia and Birhor, there is formal possession rather than actual physical possession. A young man who is deeply in love with a girl suddenly applies vermilion

Runs away by putting it on the forehead of the girl at the public place. After this the girl becomes his wife. Sometimes these types of marriages are found in Santal society. Gotup is captured by the goons. A mock fight is organized between the two parties where the bride cries and wails ceremonially. Mock capture is also practiced in Africa, Melanesia and China. In societies where the number of women is more, there the groom is captured. Such a practice has been noted from the Kambot people of New Guinea.

(B) Marriage by trial

It is the kind of marriage where a young man has to prove his courage, valor and physical strength before claiming the girl as his wife. Such practice is widespread among the Bhils of Central India.

 

(c) marriage by purchase

This is the common way of getting a wife in tribal societies. Here the marriage demands a payment for the bride, which is known as bride price. Such a practice was widespread in Hindu society in the Vedic age. The lower castes of Bengal still prefer to marry by purchase. wifi

This practice is quite common among the Kuki and Rengma Nagas. Santhal, Oraon, Toto, Lodha etc. are no exception to this.

 

 

(d) marriage by exchange

It is a modified form of ‘marriage by purchase’. Here a second bride is provided in lieu of compensating the bride price. Due to which the payment could not be claimed by either of the two families. In Melanesia and Australia a man’s sister is offered to his wife’s brother. The same was done among the elite Brahmins of Bengal. The Bhotias of Almora also show this type of marriage in their community.

(e) Marriage by service

It is a marriage ceremony given by the groom to the bride’s family with considerable labor before the wedding. A prospective groom goes to live in the house that will be his father-in-law’s house and works for them. The length of service varies among different groups of people. It could be a few days or a few months or even a few years. In Banas of Bengal, the groom serves his in-laws for six to nine months. Weifei cookies take this period to be two to three years. For Bhils, it is about seven years. This type of practice is also popular among the Amol, Purum and Chiru Kukis of Manipur, Eskimos and Ains of Japan. Marriage by service is also associated with matrilineal residence.

(f) Marriage by negotiation

In this type of marriage there is mutual consent of both the parties. Here the parents search for suitable matches and then negotiate. Sometimes go-betweens are appointed. Most of the tribes and castes of India follow this path. The Puram Kukis of Assam, the Mundas and Hos of Chhota Nagpur, the Baigas of Madhya Pradesh show the most rigor in this process.

 

(g) Marriage by migration

Tribes, especially those that have dormitories for youth, encourage adolescent boys and girls to choose their mates. In this case, if the consent of the parents is not available, then the escape takes place. The boy drives the girl away and usually after a long time, the couple is reunited in the family. When the runaway couple is re-inducted into the tribe, they must undergo a round of beatings. After that a grand feast may or may not take place. This type of marriage is very popular in Oraon. In the Kurnais of South East Australia, about a dozen girls are abducted at a time.

(h) Marriage by infiltration

This is the marriage which takes place according to the wish of the girl. When a girl is ready to marry someone who does not want her, she herself enters his house and starts living there without the permission of that house. Naturally they misuse her and the girl has to face various kinds of harassment. If she conquers all of them, the marriage is approved. Such a strange way of marriage is known as ‘marriage by infiltration’. It is celebrated among tribes like Birhor and Ho.

(i) Marriage on probation

It is a marriage in which the groom is allowed to stay in the bride’s house for a few days before the wedding. During this both the boy and the girl try to know each other better. If they think that their nature is compatible with each other, then only they decide about the marriage. Otherwise they are separated and in the second case the boy has to compensate the girl’s parents with a cash payment. Such a method of finding mates is found in the Kuki community.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Family

 

Family is the basis of human society. It is the most important primary group of the society. Family as an institution is universal. It is the most enduring and the most widespread of all social institutions. Interpersonal relationships within the family make the family a permanent social unit. The family is not only the basic social group; It is also the oldest institution of mankind, which has the power to withstand social changes. Biological and social reproduction in the family is essential to maintain the continuity of the society.

The word ‘family’ is derived from the Latin word ‘famulus’ [meaning servant. Elliott and

Merrill, family is an organic social unit made up of husband, wife and children.

 

 

family origins

In the beginning of human society there was neither family nor marriage. Only a kind of unruly animal-like life prevailed. Institutions, namely, family and marriage came into existence after certain stages of social development.

Much anthropological research and speculation has been done to trace the historical origins of the family. LH Morgan, J.G. Fraser and more recently R.Brifault were influenced by the evolutionary theories of Darwin and Spencer. He tried to project the family through unilinear development.

In the book ‘Ancient Society’ (1851) Morgan showed five successive stages for the development of the family. At the base was the Rajni family, which resulted from group marriages between members of the same generation. There marriage was allowed between brothers and sisters. The second phase was the Punaluan family. Although this type of family was the result of group marriage, the marriage of brother and sister was prohibited. The Sindisemian family came in the third stage based on the marriage between a man and a woman. But it was devoid of the norm of exclusive cohabitation; The marriage relationship continued as long as the happiness of the parties remained. In the fourth stage, the patriarchal family began to denote the marriage of one man with several women. The last or final of the stages appeared with the nuclear family where marriage between single pairs

H was accepted with the criteria of exclusive cohabitation. According to Morgan a monogamous family was similar to the modern nuclear family. McLennan and Herbert Müller, along the same lines, advocated that sexual communism prevailed in early stages of society and that group marriage was only a step higher form of promiscuous status.

 

 

 

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Family Type

 

Variations in family patterns are quite natural. It depends on the methods of marriage and the economic system.

1. a) Monogamous family/Nuclear family

This type of family is based on monogamy, ie marriage between one man and one woman. It is the simplest of all types of families as it consists of one man; His wife and children. Here the husband or wife cannot remarry as long as the husband or wife is alive. Other names for this family are primary family, basic family, matrimonial family, immediate family, primary family, etc. Since this type of family serves as the nucleus of all other types of families, it is also popularly known as nuclear family. . , Various tribal groups of India eg. Santhals, Lodhas, Kharias, Birhors, Chenchus, Khasis, Kadars etc. show this type of family in their community. A monogamous family structure is also common among Aboriginal Australians,

Joint Family/Extended Family

In some types of family, the nucleus is extended with some close relatives and the family is called an extended family. Sometimes it is also called joint family. According to the Handbook, Notes and Queries of Anthropology (1874), a joint family is formed when “two or more family relatives of the same sex, their husbands and children, live in the same house and jointly share the same rights”. or are subject to a single head.”. This means that the joint family is a large group extending over two, three or more generations, of which husband, wife and children are related members.

Joint families arise and remain as the members carry out their activities in a harmonious manner under the leadership of the eldest person of the household. Cooperation and mutual support are the key words here. Important economic factors play a role behind the formation of joint families.

1. b) polygamous family

This type of family is made up of two or more nuclear (monogamous) families that are linked by multiple marriages. The essential feature is that within a polygamous family one of the spouses remains the same as in all monogamous families. Polygamous families can be of two types – polygamous and polyandrous.

1. i) Polygamous family

This type of family is based on a polygamous form of marriage, where a man marries more than one woman and lives in the same household with all his wives and children. This type of family is also seen in the Kulin Brahmins and Muslim community of Bengal. In terms of tribal groups, Nagas of North-East India, Gonds and Baigas of Central India represent this type of family. Outside India, polyandrous families are found among the Eskimo tribes of North America, the Crow and the Hidatsa, and especially among African Negroes.

Polyandrous families often arise after the status of a greater number of women than men in a society. It also indicates the low social status of women; The status of men is prestigious because they can have many wives at a time.

 

 

 

1. ii) Polyandry family

This type of family is the result of a polygamous form of marriage. Here a woman marries many men and lives with all the husbands and children. polyandry type

The number of households is not at all prominent; Rather they are confined to small pockets. By nature, polyandrous families can be divided into two groups—fraternal (adelphic) polyandrous families and non-fraternal polyandrous families.

Fraternal polyandry is a family where a woman marries two or more brothers. In northern India, a belt is found from Janusar-Bawar through the Kangra valley to the Hindu Kush range, where families are mainly polyandrous. The Marquesans of Polynesia also display this type of family. In India, the Khasa of Uttar Pradesh, the Kinnaur, Lahaul and Sprit people of Himachal Pradesh, the Sinhalese of Sri Lanka, some Tibetans and the Todas of the Nilgiri Hills show this type of family.

In non-fraternal polyandrous families, the husbands are not necessarily brothers. Such families were once widespread among the Tibetans and Nairs of Kerala.

joint family

This family type refers to a solid group, formed from a set of single family units or parts of them. These types of families are formed under special circumstances. For example, once the practice of female infanticide, the number of males in the Toda community increased and polyandry became popular. But at present the practice of female feticide has completely stopped and hence the number of males and females in the community has become parallel. Still due to the traditional belief, a brother’s wife is seen as the wife of all other brothers in the family. Now, if those brothers marry separately and live in the same household, all the brothers together with all their wives and children give birth to a joint family which is normally an unusual phenomenon.

1. c) Joint family

This is not only an unusual but also a very complex form of family.

P is also there. The male of such a family is often forced to spend long hours in distant forests to earn a living. During that time a man from the neighborhood comes to take care of the family as per the rules. This man establishes matrimonial relationship with the wife and goes back when the real husband returns. The Dearie, a hunting tribe from Australia, show this type of family. Thus a daria woman has one permanent husband (tippamalku) and several temporary husbands (pirauru). All the children live in the same house with the mother. Such a family is called a joint family.

Based on the rules of residence the family is classified into six.

1. a) patriarchal residence

After marriage, the wife goes to live with her husband at her husband’s house. This type of residence is widely visible in our society. Tribes like Santhal, Munda, Lodha etc. follow this pattern of residence.

 

 

1. B) matrilocal residence

After marriage husband comes to live in wife’s house, Khasi, Garo etc. tribes provide

example.

1. c) dual residence

Sometimes, the newly married couple is free to decide where they will live, whether with or near the husband’s relatives, or with or near the wife. Necessity determines the pattern of residence here. This form of residence is called bilocal residence.

1. d) Neolocal residence

After marriage the couple does not live with or near close relatives of either party. Wherever they live, they create a separate existence of their own. This type of housing is called neolocal housing.

1. e) local housing

In some societies the newly married couple goes to live with the wife’s uncle (mother’s brother). Such avankulocal dwellings are found in matrilineal societies. Therefore, this type of event is relatively rare. Yet the Nairs of the Malabar Coast adore him. Trobriand Islanders sometimes prefer to set up this type of residence.

1. f) Maternal-Paternal Residence

In some societies, first the husband lives with the wife in her house. After some time, usually after the birth of the first child, he returns to his ancestral home with his wife. This type of residence is prevalent among the Chenchus of South India.

family functions

As the reproductive cell of the society, the family performs some specific functions which can be mentioned as follows:

• The need for food and shelter is considered fundamental for the survival of the child.
• The family functions as a biological unit by providing a common abode for a man and a woman where sexual satisfaction is possible between them.
• A family regulates various relationships among its members.
• The family presents itself as an economic unit because there is a distinct division of labor among the members of the family.
• The members of a family are bound together by mutual affection and close ties.
• The family behaves as an effective agent in the transmission of social heritage.
• The family helps in the transmission of wealth from one generation to the next.
• The family also transmits the religious tradition.
• The family acts as a recreational unit as sometimes it organizes some recreational activities for the members.
• Family acts as a protective shield.

Intra – family roles and relationships

1) husband-wife relationship

2) father and son

Relationship

3) Mother-daughter relationship

4) Mother-son relationship

 

 

5) Father-daughter relationship

6) Elder brother-younger brother relationship

7) Elder sister – younger sister relationship

8) Brother-sister relationship

The family as a basic social institution is undergoing changes. The modern family is fundamentally different from the traditional one. The family has never been more comfortable. There have been changes in both its structure and functions.

 

Equality

An important concept in anthropology – The concept of “kinship” is extremely important in anthropology. In simple societies, kinship ties are so widespread, fundamental and influential that they actually constitute a ‘social order’ in themselves.

But in more complex societies, kinship is usually only a small part of the totality of social relationships that make up the social order. Sociologists do not give much importance to it except in their study of sociology of family. Anthropologists, on the contrary, give more importance to this concept because kinship and family form the focal point in anthropological studies.

Kinship is a method of calculating relationship. In any society, every adult person belongs to two different nuclear families. The family in which he was born and brought up is called the ‘Family of Orientation’. The other family with which he establishes relationship through marriage is called the ‘family of progeny’. The kinship system is neither a social group nor does it correspond to an organized gathering of individuals. It is a structured system of relationships where individuals are bound together by complex interlocking and ramifying ties.

Irawati Karve in her book ‘Kinship Organization in India’ mentions three things

It is absolutely necessary to understand any cultural phenomenon in India.

Among Hindu peasants, the family may also include parents, married sons and aged grandparents, father’s sisters, unmarried and widows. Usually, generations in a family merge here.

 

Structural Theories of Kinship:

kinship system

are governed by certain basic principles which may be called “facts of life”.

Robin Fox talks about four basic principles which are mentioned below: Principle-1: Women have children

Theory-2: Men impregnate females Theory-3: Men usually exercise control Theory-4: Primary kin do not mate with each other.

 

 

These theories emphasize the basic biological fact on which the kinship system rests. Men and women engage in sexual contact and as a result women give birth to children. This creates a blood relationship between individuals and special terms are used to identify this relationship: mother, child and father. A relationship based on blood relations is called “blood relation”, and such relatives are called ‘blood relations’.

The desire to reproduce gives rise to another type of binding relationship. “Such a bond, which arises from a socially or legally defined matrimonial relationship, is called an ultimate kin”, and such kin are called ‘an ultimate kin’. The last type [husband and wife] are not related to each other through blood.

Rule of Lineage:

‘Descent’ refers to the social recognition of biological relationships that exist between individuals. The ‘law of descent’ refers to a set of principles by which a person traces his or her ancestry. Kinship ties are very important in almost all societies. A person always has some obligation towards his relatives and he expects the same from his relatives. Succession and inheritance are related to this rule of descent. The four important rules of decency are as follows;

patrilineal lineage

When the lineage is traced only through the male line, it is called patrilineal lineage. A man’s sons and daughters all belong to the same lineage group by birth, but it is only the sons who continue the affiliation. Succession and inheritance pass through the male line.

matrilineal lineage

When the lineage is traced only through the female line. This is called matriarchal lineage. At birth, children of both sexes belong to the lineage group of the mother, but later only females receive succession and inheritance. That’s why daughters carry forward the tradition from generation to generation.

bisexual descent

In some societies individuals are free to trace their lineage through males or females. That’s why some people of such a society are related to the kin group of the father and some others to the kin group of the mother. There is no fixed rule for ascertaining succession and succession; Any combination of lineal links is possible in such societies.

bilateral descent

The word bilateral means two-sided. There are some societies where none of the linear principles work,

That is, individuals in those societies do not associate themselves with a common ancestor. The descent of a particular line is not counted; rather they accept relativity

With equal importance of both father and mother. Relatives on both sides are counted in terms of egregor and mainly include parents, grandparents, uncles, aunts and first cousins. Nuclear families are always bilateral

 

 

Because the husband and wife essentially come from two different families and the children belong to both

Parents’ family. United States society is characterized by bilateral descent.

special relationship usage

Kinship practices or kinship rules are important in understanding the kinship system. They serve two main purposes:

 

• They form groups or specialized groups or kin. For example- family, extended family, gotra etc.
• Kinship laws govern the role of relations between relatives.

 

Kinship usage provides guidelines for interactions between individuals in these social groups. It defines appropriate and acceptable role relationships. Thus it acts as a regulator of social life. Some of these relationships are: Avoidance, Technonymi, Avenculet, Emitate, Couvade and Joke’s relationship.

These special kinship practices, which are of particular importance in relation to uneducated societies.

(A) Avunculate

It is a strange use to be found between the children of a mother’s brother and her sister. In some matrilineal societies, the maternal uncle takes over many of the duties of the father as a matter of tradition. His nephews and nieces live to his right. They also inherit their property. Such a relationship exists between the Trobriand Islanders of Melanesia and the Nairs of Kerala. It refers to the special relationship that exists in some societies between a man and his mother’s brother. This usage is found in matriarchal systems in which the maternal uncle is given prominence in the lives of his nephews and nieces.

(b) amitate

This type of usage is more or less the same as absolutism and is found among patriarchal peoples. The use of amitate assigns a special role to the father’s sister. Here father’s sister gets a lot of respect and prime importance. She is more than a mother to her nephew and exerts authority over him in many events of life. In fact, it is a social mechanism to protect father’s sisters from being neglected, especially in situations where they are thrown out of their in-laws’ homes. Polynesian T

Onga, Toda etc. of South India show this type of usage. The child is not named by his parents but by the father’s sister. Naming the child is his prerogative.

(c) crows

This is another strange experiment of kinship between a husband and his wife. Here the husband is forced to lead a harsh life whenever his wife gives birth to a child. He has to maintain a strict attitude with his wife to observe several taboos. Anthropologists consider crows

 

 

A symbolic representation of establishing paternity over the child, according to Malinowski the use of cudgels contributes to a strong marital bond between husband and wife.

It was popular among the Nairs of South India, the Ains of Japan and some communities in China.

(d) avoidance

In most societies the use of avoidance serves as a taboo for incest. This means that generally two relatives of the opposite sex should stay away from each other. In almost all societies, rules of etiquette stipulate that men and women must maintain a certain amount of decency in speech, dress, and gesture in mixed company. It is actually a protective measure against incestuous sex between close relatives who are in face-to-face contact every day.

Purdah practice in the Hindu family in the north reflects the use of avoidance.

 

 

(e) joke relationship

This is the exact opposite type of kinship usage as opposed to ‘avoidance’. got funny relationships

In tribal as well as in Hindu society.

A joking relationship involves a characteristic combination of friendship and antagonism between individuals and groups in certain social situations. In these situations it is permissible for one person or group to mock or ridicule another without taking offense. The use of joking relationships allows the other to tease and make fun of. Such a relationship exists between a grandson and granddaughter, his grandfather and grandmother, on the one hand, and Oran in Odisha and Baiga in Madhya Pradesh, on the other.

(f) Technical:

According to the usage of this usage one relative is not referred to directly but through another relative. In a traditional Hindu family, the wife does not directly name her husband, but refers to her husband as the father of so-and-so. James Fraser states that this type of usage is found among people in many places like Australia, New Guinea, China, Northern Siberia, Africa, Andaman Islands etc.

clan

A lineage is a unilineal kinship group larger than a lineage. Here members are assumed to be descended from a common ancestor but genealogical links are not specified. i.e. members cannot demonstrate their true lineal relationship through a pedigree table. in the S

The lineage of such a condition is traced to a mythical ancestor who may be a human being or a plant or an animal or even an inanimate object. The terms clan, sib and gents all indicate similar unilineal kinship.

Gotras are exogamous in nature, meaning that marriage partners must necessarily come from two different gotras. Membership in a clan is hereditary. Members of a clan are usually friendly to each other and

 

 

Help each other out following a social need. But sometimes hostile relation is found between the two clans.

A particular animal or plant, which is associated with a gotra as a group identity, is called a totem. R.H. According to Lowy, ‘A totem is usually an animal rarely a plant, yet rarely a cosmic body or force like the sun or the wind, which gives its name to a clan and Perhaps otherwise it is connected with it. A totem is therefore especially important in front of the clan. Rivers defines gotra as ‘an exogamous division of a tribe’, the members of which are bound together by a common descent, common possession of a totem or belief in a common territory. Clan is found in almost all the primitive communities of the world. , although not as a universal feature. For example, the Sandals of India have twelve gotras, the Lodha tribe has nine gotras. Andamanese and Kadar do not show any evidence of clan. Absence of gotra has also been found in the tribes of America.

The members of a clan regard their totem as the founding ancestor. They do not always believe that they are direct descendants of the totem, it is said that the particular totem helped or promoted their ancestors or performed some services. Therefore, the members respect the totem, they never touch, kill, eat, harm or destroy the totem of reference. For example, a gotra among the Santhals is named Hansda. The members of this clan revere the duck (local name: Hans) and do not eat duck meat as they consider themselves descended from ducks. Similarly, among the Lodhas, there is a gotra Nayak whose family deity is Sal-fish. Killing or eating sal-fish is prohibited for this caste. More examples can be given in this regard. One of the Uraon clan name is Lakda which means tiger. The clan members never hunt tigers out of respect for this ancestral animal.

Clans can be classified into several types on the basis of the nature of origin.

(a) patrilineal clan

When a gotra is patrilineal in nature, it is called a patrilineal clan, i.e. all the members are descended from the male line.

Dhyamas are believed to descend from a common ancestor. Every child inherits the father’s gotra name, although daughters give it up after marriage by adopting their husband’s respective gotra name. Tribes like Santhal, Munda, Lodha, Oraon, Bhil etc. of India exhibit this type of gotra.

(b) matrilineal clan

It is a type of gotra where descent is counted from a single ancestor through females. Every child, regardless of gender, receives his mother’s gotra name from birth, but sons take their wives’ gotra names after marriage. The Garo, Khasi and Nair tribes of India represent this type of gotra.

(c) paternal lineage

Sometimes members of a clan believe that they originated from a certain pair of male and female. This type of gotra is called paternal gotra. It is found in the Khasi people of India.

 

 

(d) totemic clan

When members of a clan relate themselves to a particular totem, rather than to a human ancestor, the clan is designated as a totemic clan. Such gotras are often found in primitive communities like Santals, Oraons, Lodhas, Kols, Bhils, Gonds, Todas etc.

(e) Territorial clan

Sometimes members of a clan identify themselves with a particular region from which they probably originated. In Bison Murias of MP, clans are named after villages. Among the Nagas of Assam, the Khel is a territorial group, though not a gotra.

The term ‘sib’ is often considered synonymous with the term ‘clan’ as it is also a unilateral exogamous group where members believe in a common ancestry but may not be able to show a link through a genealogy table. Furthermore, this involuntary association is dependent on birth and can be changed through adoption. The lowest stages of culture represented by hunting and pastoral tribes such as the Andamanese, Semang, Hottentots, Bushmen, Eskimos, etc., do not have sibs. The existence of Sib has been recorded from Lhota Naga of Assam, Bhuiya of Orissa, Kuki of Manipur. , Arunta of Australia, Bantus and Masai of Africa etc. are other synonyms of clan, ‘Jane’ corresponds to a patrilineal clan as here kinship is traced entirely through the male line.

Gotra is also equivalent to the Bengali word ‘Gotra’. Members of the same gotra do not marry among themselves. Among the Hindus of India the various gotra-names are related to the names of some ancient sages (Kshayapa, Shandilya, Gautama, Varatdvaja, etc.), which means that people with the same gotra-name are descended from a common ancestor. The gotra, therefore, is patrilineal and has no totem.

function

clan’s

1. A clan provides a bond of solidarity among its members.
2. Men and women of a gotra look upon the relationship as a brother-sister relationship as they are descended from the same ancestor.
3. A clan can punish its members for violating any social norm.
4. Gotra acts as a government.. It not only has the power to decide disputes to maintain peace, through it comes various kinds of approvals.
5. A clan is found to control the property.
6. The members of a clan come together to cooperate with each other on various religious and ceremonial occasions.

fraternity

The mutual relation of two or more clans creates fraternity. Therefore, it is a larger unilineage lineage group than the total. As a clan, the members of a phratry are not able to demonstrate their genealogical relationship to a common ancestor, although they strongly believe in such an ancestor.

 

 

The word phratry is derived from the Greek word ‘frater’ which means brother. It is believed that some clans historically came together for one reason or the other and developed such a close relationship that gradually they acquired a common identity where their individual status was forgotten. Fratry is found in tribes like Aimol Kuki of Manipur, Hopi Indian, Crow Indian, Aztec Indian of America etc.

A Fratry may or may not be exogamous. For example, among the Crow Indians the thirteen clans are divided into six unnamed clans, four of which are not strict in marriage rules. Among the Hopi Indians, on the other hand, there are nine unnamed phratries (each consisting of two to six gotras) that are exogamous.

half of

It is the largest unilateral social group, which is the result of division of society into two parts on the basis of lineage. The word moiety comes from the French word meaning ‘half’. Like clan and fraternity, the members of each clan although believe in a common ancestor, cannot specify the exact link. The halves can be exogamous or endogamous. Some of them are also unmarried i.e. they do not control for the factor of marriage.

Aimol cookies of Manipur are divided into two types without specific names. Each section is further divided into two groups and each section has two gotras or siblings. Bigamy is exogamy and one of them is considered superior to the other. The best part reserves all the posts of the village organization including the priest. The two sides perform distinct religious rites and ceremonies specific to the tribe. Each also has some special performances. but high social-status

The ceremonies are performed only by the members of the best religion.

genealogy

A family is bilateral. In contrast, a lineage is a uniparental lineage group. It is composed of consanguineous relatives who claim their descent from a common ancestor or ancestors through known links. A lineage usually consists of five or six generations of ancestors in a sequence. Descent can be of two types – paternal lineage and matrilineal. In the former, the link is traced only through the male line and in the latter, the link is maintained only through the female line. If the lineage is patrilineal, the child of a legal marriage belongs to his father’s lineage. His rank as a noble or a general would be determined by the nature of the lineage concerned. This may entitle him to become a king or a chieftain or a priest. In normal cases, one must have a claim on the productive resources of the lineage. In a matrilineal society, each child belongs to his mother’s lineage, although authority passes to the mother’s eldest brother.

Lineage members may or may not share a common residence. The smallest lineage consists of a man and his children. Joint family is also a lineage in which members of up to three or four generations are available together. In fact the members of a clan form a corporate group which

 

 

Perform similar rituals but have autonomy in daily affairs. A clan is always a strictly exogamous entity and the progenitor of the clan is never a mythical or legendary figure.

 

coat of arms

Totemism is an extension of Paganism. The totem is a species of animal or plant; or a natural object or phenomenon or symbol of any of these that characterizes and distinguishes a human group in comparison with other groups equally represented in the same society.

A totem is a class of material objects which a wild superstitious reveres with reverence as having an intimate and altogether a special relationship between him and each member of the clan. A totem is usually an animal or rarely a plant that gives a name to the clan.

According to the principle of ‘totemism’, a tribe is believed to belong to an object-mainly animal or plant, towards which they behave reverently by adopting its name and offering sacrifices or worshiping it. The totem is linked to the tribal organization, and it becomes the name of the tribe, an image of the totem spirit, and

The animal or plant it identifies. Tribal group members associate themselves with totems. Totemic symbols are invoked that trace the totemic line with religious attitudes and disagreements. Although totemism is universally found, it exhibits considerable variations.

religion

Religion is a supernaturalism consisting of a system of belief, thought and action. It lies at the core of all primitive and civilized cultures. It acts as an internal controlling force for the society and provides morality to the people. A religion can neither be defined in terms of a particular faith, nor in terms of a particular God. There are actually a variety of religions and religious ideas. The first and foremost requirement is to investigate the nature of the supernatural. All religions essentially reflect a mental attitude towards a higher nature, which manifests itself in beliefs and rituals. Belief is considered to be the static part of religion while rituals are the dynamic part. Rituals involve various actions that are intended to establish a connection between the person performing them and a supernatural power. On the other hand, faith has no direct effect; It stands as a charter for rituals and provides a rationale for the same. However, religious attitudes are universal across all known cultures, primitive and modern. They have been associated with Homo Sapiens.

Origin of religious belief

The general philosophy of the people accepts two types of ideas – nature and nature superior to nature i.e. Para Prakriti. The concepts of nature and super-nature are relative in a culture at a particular moment. With the increase of knowledge, some supernatural phenomena may seem natural. In fact, the difference between Prakriti and Para Prakriti lies in the way people approach and realize with the help of the senses.

 

 

Anthropologists consider religion to be a product of the evolutionary development of the human mind. The brain capacity of other animals is so low that it does not allow them to think like humans. They never see the vastness of the universe because they lack sensitive mind and emotional feelings. Therefore, the first religious belief probably came into existence in the early Palaeolithic period with the original first person and from then on mystical thought controlled much of human life until Aristotle, Plato and other Greek philosophers introduced the modern scientific approach to religion, anthropological investigation. The foundation was not laid. extends to the nineteenth century when anthropology emerged as an academic discipline. There are various theories regarding the origin of religious beliefs. The earliest was forwarded by EB Taylor (1871), where he expressed the view that religion stemmed from intellectual speculation about phenomena such as dreams, samadhi and death. His offer was threefold’

1. Religion has developed out of fear.
2. Although the forms of religion in the world

There is great diversity in religion, however the basic essence of all religions is the same.

3. All religions accept supernatural power.

Herbert Spencer (1822–1903) thought it originated from ancestor worship. Sir James Fraser (1854–1941) regarded magic as the source of the development of religion. Most scholars of that early period believed that religion developed out of an interaction of emotions such as awe, fear, and wonder under the stewardship of nature. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) regarded religion as the most primitive of all social phenomena. He found two distinct sections in the supernatural realm, which he designated as the sacred part and the profane. According to him the sacred part of religion refers to the gods and deities and the sacred performance and the profane part refers to beliefs and practices.

 

Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown have given a functionalist interpretation of primitive religion. Malinowski found religion to be closely associated with a variety of emotional responses, so he described religion as an adaptogen, which alleviates all stress and tension of individuals. To Radcliffe-Brown the survival of a group was more important than that of an individual. Therefore, he suggested that the social existence of a group was more important than that of an individual. Therefore, he suggested social existence with the help of religion.

 

In an uneducated society, religion is the main factor that binds people together. The bond of kinship is so wide that it manifests itself in collective activities like law, morality, art, science, political forms etc.

concepts in the development of religion

Anthropologists have tried to trace the development of religion from simple to complex forms. Edward Burnett Tylor showed this development from animism to monotheism through polytheism in his book Primitive Religion (1871).

 

 

animism

Animism is the first concept of religion propounded by Tylor himself. It is the belief in the existence of spiritual beings. Spirits are ethereal avatars without actual flesh and blood. Although

are non-physical, but real enough for those who believe in it. Primitives use various names to refer to those spirits – Bhoot, Bhoot, Jinn, Troll, Pari, Witch, Demon, Devil, Angel and even God. A soul does not obey the laws of nature and can transcend matter, time and space. This makes spirits wonderful and mysterious, and so they have been considered supernatural.

animatism

It is the earliest form of religion which involves the worship of various objects in nature. A sense of awe and reverence used to work in the minds of people regarding various natural objects and phenomena. Being distraught, he associated life with inanimate objects and the invisible source of power with God. The specific form of animistic theory is called Manavada. Mana is a Melanesian word meaning power. According to Professor Meret, primitive people through the world believe in the existence of an impersonal non-material supernatural force that deals with all things- animate and inanimate. Mind power is sometimes referred to as “the aphrodisiac”. A fetish is a piece of stone, shell necklace or carved stone that is believed to have power, capable of helping its owner. The fetish is therefore admired, pacified, humiliated or ill-treated according to its behavior, whether it fulfills the will of its master or not.

components of primitive religion

All supernatural beings can be classified into two broad groups:

(i) They are of non-human origin i.e. nature deities and spirits.

(ii) (ii) They are of human origin i.e. departed souls such as the spirits of ancestors and ghosts.

Both categories of supernatural beings can create good and evil for men. They have been the reason behind many successes and failures. Diseases, droughts, storms, heavy rains, famines, epidemics also arise from them.

Gods and Goddesses have an important place in primitive life. The entire universe is divided among the gods. These deities are usually the creators themselves.

nature of religious practices

Religion as a body of beliefs and practices reflects a wide variation in religious views. Religious practices are also diverse. These practices are nothing but techniques to communicate with the supernatural. But they are mandatory for believers who act according to their beliefs. Such practices strengthen social bonds in a primitive group and reflect an additional authority towards customs. The practices can be classified into two categories: religious rites and rites of passage.

(A) religious rites

The purpose of religious rites is to please a deity through worship that can be done privately in the home or publicly in a temple. Forms may vary as prayer, prasad, fast festival

 

 

or sacrificial performance. Prayer is the simplest of all religious rites where reverence is expressed through words. It can be a request or a demand or just a thank you..

(b) rites of passage

The rites of passage are completely different from the religious rites which involve the worship of nature deities and various spirits. These special rites in every society

Importantly linked to the life cycle of people. They symbolize the passing of one phase of life and entering another. For example, birth, youth, marriage, ordination to the priesthood, death, etc. They are known in English by the French equivalent of rites-de-passage, and are popularly known as ‘life-crisis’ rituals.

 

(c) importance of religion

The rites and ceremonies create an atmosphere of benevolence and brotherhood. All purpose of quarrels and disagreements ceases to exist. People band together and enjoyable activities energize them; The social feelings of an organized community are renewed. Religious experiences create such an atmosphere and attitude that man becomes capable of regulating his conduct. People everywhere have developed religious systems in which the goal of religious behavior is to achieve a common end. It testifies to the unity of mankind.

It binds inter-family ties, and governs the economic and political structure of society. This can include a wide variety of sects and specific religious personnel. People try to vent their intense mental pressure under the banner of religion. They seek support and stamina from super-nature in the way of struggle for existence.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Magic, Religion And Science

 

 

 

Religion

 

Magic and religion are intertwined. Tyler: Religion is belief in the supernatural. The idea of religion is closely linked to magic and science.

 

There are many elements of religion. These elements are related to magic in one way or another. Before we discuss their relationship, we will briefly describe the elements of religion.

 

 

 

Elements Of Religion

 

1. Social anthropologists, especially the British ones, have produced a large amount of data on primitive religion. The data pertains to primitive and aboriginal peoples of India, Africa and Australia. However, American anthropologists have shown less concern over primitive religion.

 

1. There are certain elements of religion that also characterize the religion of many tribal groups:
2. Durkheim has described rituals as an important element of religion. Ritual is a practice of religion, or rather the functional part of religion.

 

3. Conceptually, rituals are distinct from religious events or beliefs. Beliefs are thoughts or ideas and rituals are their implementation. On the empirical plane of any religion, primitive or otherwise, the villager cannot be separated from religion. In The Structure of Social Action, Parsons explains the relationship between religion and rituals in the following words:
4. The fundamental difference between religion and ritual is that between the two categories of religious phenomena – belief and rite – the first is a form of thought, the second of action. But the two are different, and at the heart of every religion. The rituals of a religion are inconceivable without knowing its beliefs.

 

5. Though the two are inseparable, there is no particular relation of priority, the point being the distinction at present. Religious beliefs, then, are beliefs related to sacred objects, their origin, behavior, and significance to man. Rites are actions performed in relation to sacred things.
6. If a Santhal of Bihar offers a hen to his local deity, it is a ritual according to his belief or idea that the deity should be appeased to remove the evils imposed on the community. Thus the sacrifice of chicken is a ritual and belief in the power of God is thought. We see that in the empirical situation both belief and ritual work together.

 

excitement of emotions

Certain feelings and emotions are also aroused in order to gain consciousness about the existence of a religion or belief. Fear of God, being afraid of doing bad things, giving charity, living a pious life are all patterns of behavior that evoke feelings for a religion.

However, sometimes emotions are also aroused to create panic among the followers.

 

 

 

faith

The edifice of religion rests on a framework of beliefs. Earlier social anthropologists defined religion only in terms of beliefs. Tylor argued that without faith there can be no religion. And, what is important about faith is that it cannot be reasoned with; This cannot be proved empirically. It is just a matter of understanding.

In recent anthropological literature, the belief element in religion has been strongly criticized. It is said that religion has to be understood from a sociological and logical point of view.

Belief does not exist because it does not stand the test of reality.

 

 

 

organization

In the early history of religion we have evidence to say that there were some organizations to regulate the activities of a particular sect. Max Weber, who has been called the founder of modern sociology, observed that all of the world’s great religions—Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and Hinduism—had some form of organization. The function of the organization was to regulate the activities and functioning of the religion. Christianity has its own church which acts as a central body to hold Christians together. Similarly, Hinduism has its Char Dham where Shankaracharya acts as the head and controls the activities of the Hindus.

 

 

symbols and myths

Each religion has its own symbols and myths. For example, churches, temples, mosques, flags and a specific type of dress and worship are common to different religious sects.

There are symbols of rays. Similarly, there are mythological stories related to every religion. Tribals who believe in animism have their own totems which are reflected in animals, plants and trees. The origin of clans is also described in mythology.

 

 

 

prohibition

To differentiate themselves, each religious faith has its own taboos. These prohibitions are related to food habits and lifestyle. For example, Jainism claims that its followers should not eat after sunset and that they should be strictly vegetarian. The behavior patterns of the followers are also determined by the religion.

A few more can be added to the above list of elements of religion. It must be remembered that these elements undergo changes and transformations at the local level. New interpretations are also added to the elements with the functioning of various social and cultural processes. Some new elements also appear.

 

 

 

 

Magic

1. If we do a quick survey of research in sociology and social anthropology, we find that there has been no empirical study on magic by social anthropologists during the last few decades. Satchidananda has produced an extensive bibliography on rural studies, and to our surprise there have been no studies on the effects of magic among Indian tribes. Similarly, the Peoples of India project does not mention anything about it. On the other hand, social anthropology textbooks invariably have a chapter on tribal magic. Clearly, there is a huge difference between what we find today and what is given in the textbooks. It is incomprehensible who authors textbooks
2. Devote many pages to vivid accounts of tribal magic. Perhaps, the fault is not the authors of the textbook. The onus is on the creators of the curriculum to include magic.
3. Magical practices in India go back to medieval and pre-capitalist societies. Magic has a unique role to play in the development of our institutions. There were Malinowski, Evans-Pritchard and Fraser growth charts. It is this evolutionary perspective that inspired these anthropologists to write about tribal magic. Religion too, like any other social institution, has evolved through a long process of evolution.

 

4. Magic was probably the first stage in the evolutionary stage of the development of religion. Apart from the tribals, the non-tribal groups who were living in isolation also had a strong belief in magic.
5. The allopathic system of treatment had not come into existence then, and people were constantly falling prey to various ailments. They were living in unfriendly environment. There was famine, famine, pestilence and people had no other option but to resort to witchcraft.
6. Malinowski and Fraser, who worked among the dramatists, reported on the role of magic in Aboriginal society in the mid-19th and early 20th centuries. Malinowski’s Trobrianders and Evans-Pritchard’s Azandes have now begun to modernize. All of them have accepted the modern medical method.
7. In India, ‘civilised’ castes also adopted magical practices and in some cases, these proved to be more sophisticated than those of the tribals.’ When the Somnath Temple (Gujarat) was attacked, the Hindu kings invited a group of Brahmins to perform magic so that the attack could be neutralized. Even today, we see that when political leaders or elites of high status are struggling with death, Brahmins and Tantriks are called upon to chant Mrityunjaya – a clear example of belief in superstitions. The point we want to emphasize here is that magic was a specialized art practiced only by theatres. The entire subcontinent believed in magical practices. If Fraser and Malinowski refer to tribal magic, they are only discussing the tribal situation that was found not only in India but throughout Europe during medieval and pre-capitalist times.
8. What is magic?
9. It is a term that refers to a particular type of behavior, not necessarily religious, that results from the acceptance of beliefs in supernaturalism of one kind or another. If people believe in animism, they act so that certain things can be done with the help of spiritual beings they believe to exist. “If people believe in mana or animatism, they may act in somewhat different ways to achieve desired results with the help of impersonal types of power that they believe can be tapped.

 

10. They also believe that certain things will inevitably happen because power always operates in the same way. If people believe in a pantheon of gods, one or the other of ‘those gods will be appeased, sacrificed, killed in some way to accomplish other desired objectives. However, the essential characteristic of magic is that its processes are mechanistic and work automatically if one knows the proper formula. Religion and magic are alternative technologies. Sometimes one complements the other.
11. Anthropologists have defined magic on the basis of their experience in the field, although ‘some definitions are not directly related to empirical observations’. However, we are not here to define magic systematically.

Will try to inform. Let’s start with John Lewis. He says:

12. Magic is a technique of coercion using belief in supernatural power. Sympathetic or mimetic magic holds that an action performed on something standing in for a person or thing will have the desired effect on the real person or thing.
13. Malinowski defines magic very precisely as, “Magic is a set of purely practical actions, performed as a means to an end.”
14. According to Herskovits, magic is an important part of culture. People often use prayer as a form of worship. A prayer uses words to bring about the favorable intervention of the forces of the universe in the affairs of men. Magic stands opposite to prayer. This contrast was first made by Evans-Pritchard in his discussion of magic among the Azandes. Herskovits drew his understanding of magic from Evans-Pritchard and Fraser. His understanding of magic is explained below:
15. Charms and spells are tools widely employed in magic. A specific power, placed to reside in a specific object, is set into operation by the utterance of a formula, which may itself conduct the power. The enchantment of magic takes innumerable forms. It often includes some part of the object on which its power is exercised, or some element which, because of external resemblance or internal character, achieves the desired result.
16. Although the definitions of religion given by anthropologists differ for their
17. Me and the content, the basic idea is more or less the same. The tribals believe that there is a supernatural power. No one can compete with it. It is universal. This supernatural power is endowed with ample power which is both positive (white) and negative (black). The person who wants to master the art of witchcraft pleases the supernatural power and gives him some power. The supernatural may thus be obliged to part with some of its power by means of some magical display. These performances differ from society to society.

 

 

18. Theoretical Perspectives on Religion
19. Functionalists believe that religion fulfills several important needs of people, including group unity and companionship. (Photo courtesy of James Emery/Flickr)
20. Sociologists often apply one of three major theoretical approaches. These views provide different lenses through which to study and understand society: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and critical sociology. Let us see how the scholars who apply these models understand religion.
21. Practicality
22. Functionalists argue that religion performs many functions in society. Religion, in fact, depends on society for its existence, value and importance, and vice versa. From this perspective, religion serves several purposes, such as providing answers to spiritual mysteries, providing emotional comfort, and creating space for social interaction and social control.
23. In providing the answer, dharma defines the spiritual world and spiritual forces including divine beings. For example, it is “How was the world created?” It helps to answer questions like “Why do we suffer?” “Is there a plan for our lives?” and “Is there any life?” As another function, religion provides emotional comfort during times of distress. Religious rituals bring order, comfort, and organization through shared familiar symbols and patterns of behavior.
24. One of the most important functions of religion, from a functional point of view, is that it creates opportunities for social interaction and the formation of groups.

 

25. It provides social support and social networking, offering a place to meet others with similar values and a place to seek help (spiritual and material) in times of need. Furthermore, it can promote group cohesion and integration. Because religion can be central to many people’s concept of self, there is sometimes an “in-group” versus “out-group” feeling towards other religions in our society or within a particular practice. At the extreme level, the Inquisition, the Salem witch trials, and anti-Semitism are all examples of this dynamic. Finally, religion promotes social control: it reinforces social norms such as appropriate styles of dress, abiding by the law, and regulating sexual behavior.

 

 

 

26. Critical theorists view religion as an institution that helps perpetuate patterns of social inequality. For example, the Vatican has immense wealth, while the average income of Catholic parishioners is low. According to this perspective, religion has been used to support the “divine right” of oppressive kings and to justify unequal social structures such as India’s caste system.
27. But mankind has a way of responding to perceived injustice and religions losing relevance. One of the fastest growing sectors of global Christianity are evangelical churches, which are growing stronger not only in North America, but also in South America. This growth has come at the expense of the Catholic Church, which has long been a bastion of power in Latin and South America. Latin America refers to the countries in the subregion of the Americas where Romance languages, mainly Spanish and

And Portuguese is spoken. As anthropologist Cristina Vital of the Institute for the Study of Religion in Rio de Janeiro explains,

28. [Evangelical] churches adopt less rigid rules than the Catholic Church … They adopt customs and values we see in our society today, such as the importance of financial well-being, to reach this prosperity The Importance of Entrepreneurship, The Importance of Discipline (Feiser & Alves 2012).
29. At the same time, evangelical and fundamentalist Christian denominations often introduce foreign belief systems that are homophobic or undermine family planning and anti-AIDS strategies.

 

30. The persecution of homosexuals in Uganda through the Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Act (2014) was prompted by the influence of American evangelicals in the country (Gentleman 2010).
31. In contrast, the power of Weber’s theories of sociology to help understand religious history was demonstrated to the contemporary public in the publication of a seminal work by Norman Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel, 1250–1050. and was brought to an academic audience. BC (1999).

 

32. Gottwald explains this connection even more clearly in his book The Politics of Ancient Israel, which was an answer to the question posed in Weber’s 1921 classic Ancient Judaism: How did the people develop as [hosted guests by larger societies]. Peculiarities? (Gottwald 2001, Weber 1921). Even critics of Gottwald’s view such as Kenton Sparks offer alternative Weberian interpretations for the existence of early Israel:
33. Israel’s existence can equally be attributed to the religious innovations of Kingdom-era mono-Yahvistic prophets, who interpreted foreign oppression as the hand of Jehovah and thus Israel’s religious beliefs and ethnic distinctiveness. preserved in contexts where it might otherwise have been destroyed (Sparks 2004 p. 126).
34. There is still a debate over the usefulness of Weberian theory in the explanation of social behavior, including thousands of years of social behavior. Weber still has relevance in the sociology of religion.
35. Critical theorists are concerned with how many religions promote the idea that one should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely determined.

 

36. It is argued that this power dynamic has been used by religious institutions for centuries to keep poor people poor, teaching them that they should not be concerned with what they lack because their The “true” reward (from a theological point of view) would come after death. Critical theorists also point out that those in power in religion are often able to dictate practices, customs, and beliefs either through their own interpretation of religious texts or through declared direct communication with the divine. In more recent history, George W. Bush’s statement that God told him to “end the tyranny in Iraq” (MacAskill 2005). A key element in the Enlightenment project that is central to the critical perspective is therefore the separation of church and state. Public policy that is based on irrational or rational religious belief or “revelation” rather than on scientific evidence undermines a key component of democratic deliberation and public scrutiny of the decision-making process.
37. Fig. 15.3. Feminist theorists focus on gender inequality and promote leadership roles for women in religion. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)
38. The feminist perspective focuses specifically on gender inequality. In the context of religion, feminist theorists claim that, although women are usually the ones to socialize children into a religion, they have traditionally occupied very few positions of power within religions. Some religions and religious sects are more gender equal, but male dominance is the norm for most. But this claim is also carefully scrutinized by feminist scholars. For example, those following the seminal work of The Gnostic Gospels by Ellen Pagels have been instrumental in rediscovering the place of women in Christian history (1979). Marilyn Stone’s When God Was a Woman (1976) traces the pre-history of European society back to female-centred cultures based on fertility and creator goddesses. It was not until the invasions of the Kurgans from the northeast and the Semites from the south in the fifth millennium BCE that hierarchical and patriarchal religions became dominant.
39. Signal Exchange Route
40. Rising from the concept that our world is socially constructed, symbolic interactionism studies the symbols and interactions of everyday life. For interactionists, beliefs and experiences are not sacred unless individuals in society regard them as sacred. The Star of David in Judaism, the cross in Christianity, and the crescent and star in Islam are examples of sacred symbols. Interactionists are interested in what these symbols communicate. In addition, because face-to-face talk between interacting individuals

When studying poetry, a scholar using this approach might ask questions focused on this dynamic.

When studying poetry, a scholar using this approach might ask questions focused on this dynamic.

कविता का अध्ययन करते समय, इस दृष्टिकोण का उपयोग करने वाला एक विद्वान इस गतिशील पर केंद्रित प्रश्न पूछ सकता है।

When studying literature, a scholar using this approach may ask questions focused on this dynamic.

साहित्य का अध्ययन करते समय, इस दृष्टिकोण का उपयोग करने वाला एक विद्वान इस गतिशील पर केंद्रित प्रश्न पूछ सकता है।

The interactions between religious leaders and practitioners, the role of religion in common components of everyday life, and the way people express religious values in social interactions—all of these can be subjects of study for an interactionist.

41. It is important to recognize that the above theoretical models each provide only a partial account of religious beliefs and practices.

 

 

elements of magic

Magic’ is an art and it has to be acquired. The practitioner has to work hard to develop the skill of magic. Some of the important elements of magic are given below:

 

(1) Tylor has classified ‘practices of magic’. These practices are scientific. The businessman works as a scientist. For example, Tylor says that things that look alike tend to be placed in a category. Just like the color of jaundice is yellow and so is the color of gold. Jadoo establishes a connection between the two because of their similar colour. Bohannon disagrees with this theory. He says that no logic of association applies to magical practices.

(2) Magic is person-oriented. A person sees something in a particular way; This belief works in their magical practices.

(3) According to Malinowski, mantras have an important role. Mantras have the power to mimic natural sounds and hence chants are vital for the successful outcome of magical practice. Second, the magician explains the current situation in the same language and orders the fulfillment of his wishes. Third, spells mention the names of ancestors who have imparted magical skills.

(4) while chanting mantras the magician continuously performs certain actions; For example, he waves his hands, makes faces and gestures. These physical activities are believed to strengthen the power of the spell.

(5) The magician observes some abstinence in the matter of diet and sexual relations on the days when he engages himself in magical practices.

(6) A magical practice cannot be performed at the magician’s discretion. There are certain days which are considered suitable for this. For example, the last day of the dark half of the month or the new moon is best suited for learning and practicing magic. Again, Dussehra days, especially Navratri, are good for magical practices.

(7) Malinowski says that discipline is most important in the practice of magic.

The first thing that is necessary for a magician is to clarify the objectives of magic. He has to handle them very carefully. A slight mistake could have cost the magician himself. This is the reason why the magician leads a miserable life in his old age.

(8) According to the purposes of the magical practice, the magician makes physical gestures to strengthen his magic.

Fraser and Malinowski have found interesting examples of magical practices among the aborigines of Australia and Africa. Nadel also mentions magic in his description of the Nupe religion. Evans-Pritchard gives a detailed account of magical practices and its elements among the Azandes.

 

 

 

principles of magic

Some anthropologists have developed theories of magic. Tylor specifically distinguished magic from religion. He has created three basic principles of magic which are as follows:

(1) Magic pertains to a type of behavior that is based on common sense.

(2) Whatever is done by nature can also be done by magic. In such a situation, people are unable to differentiate between the working of nature and magic.

(3) If the spell fails, it is believed to be due to faulty chanting of mantras or some lapse in the routine life of the practitioner.

Thus, Tylor’s theory of magic makes two important points: (i) magic is an ideology, and has to be relied upon; and (ii) magic is based on logic. If magical practice is carried out on these two principles, the results will always follow. Ivan Pritchard believes that magic and religion are found in all societies.

Magic, science and religion have influence in all societies. But the extent of effect is ‘not the same’. For example, if a society lives at a lower level of culture such as tribal and backward classes, the scope of magic and religion will be larger. The larger members of this society would rely heavily on magical practices and rituals. However, if a society has a high level of culture, there will be less room for magic and religion; And more space for science. In other words, advanced societies have a prominent place in science while backward societies practice more magic and religion.

Tylor’s theory of magic has been corrected by Frazer. In the literature on social anthropology, Tylor is best known for two of his classic works: a summary of what Tylor propounded as theory in these books.

Ken Up for discussion and analysis by Fraser. Paraphrasing Tylor, Fraser gives the principle – the law of sympatry – which states that tribal peoples view material things as sympathizers between two similar things. Sympathy is of two kinds: (i) on the basis of external resemblance, for example, between the color of jaundice and the color of gold; and (ii) on the basis of contacts. Based on these two sympathies, Frazer has given three principles of magic: (1) the principle of sympathy, (2) the principle of similarity

theory and

(3) Principle of contact.

Fraser’s theory of magic holds that when an Aborigine practices magic, he does it as he has learned it, and is not concerned with the principles of magic—only with the result. . This is why Frazer regards magic as a semi-art and a semi-science. Magic has two basic purposes: first, some objectives are achieved through magic, and second, some unwanted events can be avoided. The first purpose is called sorcery and the second sorcery.

There is no doubt that Tylor has given some of the fundamental principles of magic which are to be found among the aborigines. These core principles have been further elaborated, reinterpreted and retextured by Fraser. The attribution of the division into witchcraft and sorcery is another important contribution to this field. His hypothesis is that magic and religion provide political cohesion to society. Fraser and Durkheim both see magic and religion as sources of political unity.

 

 

 

types of magic

1. Students of social anthropology often distinguish between two types of magic. The first type named by Fraser is called imitative or homeopathic magic, while the second is called transmissive. Description of two types of magic
2. Herskovits writes: Both are organized to operate according to a principle
3. ‘Like to like’ is also called ‘principle of sympathy’. An example of ‘contagious’ magic is when a hunter drinks the blood of his kill to gain his cunning or his strength. ‘Imitative’ magic can be found, say, in the performance of a dance in which the mock killing of an animal was performed to ensure success in the hunt.
4. The above two types of magic neither constitute the whole field, nor are they absent from some of the practices to which the word ‘religious’ is customarily given.
5. Yet another typology of magic is that of ‘black’ and ‘white’. Black magic has some evil intentions. According to it, the victim has suffered some injuries. The second type, white magic, is beneficial in its intent. There is a lot of emphasis on black magic in the social anthropological literature. “The reason for this is twofold.

 

6. The challenge for the investigator is to reveal what his informant is least willing to reveal. Even more so, however, is the dramatic appeal of black magic. Once a desire to talk about it is established, informants will dwell on the subject with gleeful and exuberant detail, and the ‘white’ magic will be discarded.
7. The horror shows presented on television by different names depict many practices of black magic. If revenge is to be taken, the sorcerer makes a clay idol of the victim and gives him various kinds of pain. In turn, these pains are experienced by the sufferer. We have innumerable examples of magic from different parts of the world. However, examples of white magic are very few. This category of magic has also expanded to include many indigenous medicines. The surprising thing is that white and black magic is practiced even among literate people. However, with the increase in literacy and education, many magical practices are falling out of vogue.
8. Witchcraft
9. Disease and difficulties are common to mankind. People have a list of remedies to overcome these physical ailments or social crises. The premises for the secular practice of medicine, unaffected by supernaturalism, are therefore found in all societies. Such knowledge, which was certainly empirical and not analyzed scientifically, was generally available and used by all. However, there were numerous sufferings that people in primitive societies believed to be caused by factors of a non-material nature.

 

10. The treatment of such ailments required magical procedures, such as returning the poisonous force injected by an evil shaman or sorcerer to its victim. Individuals who had acquired or inherited or procured supernatural power and procedures based on these were said to help individuals who were ill from these non-physical causes.
11. Shamans in all societies were only part-time workers who were engaged in treating people or in some ceremonies for which their power also fit them. The practice of medicine among people in primitive societies is thus everywhere characterized by some really useful instruments and drugs, but by erroneous theories of the causation of more deadly diseases and resorting to the supernatural.
12. For subsequent treatment.
13. Every society has its own experts who treat diseases with their skills. These are called witchcraft, shaman, ojha or bhopa. Shamans or exorcists are those who have the power to detect witchcraft and heal the person who has been cast. They claim to be able to see into the future, avoid harm, transform themselves, and accomplish supernatural tasks.
14. Evans-Pritchard, who worked among the Azandes of South Sudan during 1926-36, gave a detailed account of witchcraft and divination. In the Azande tribe, any misfortune can happen, and is usually, attributed to witchcraft. The Azande take it for granted. witch uses her witchcraft spirit or self to harm others

What does she say to A, she sends. The victim consults a tantrik or soothsayer to find out who is hurting him.

 

15. This can be a long and complicated process. When the culprit is exposed, he is requested to withdraw his malicious influence. If, in case of illness, he does not do so and the person dies, the relatives of the dead person may in future take the matter to major and exact retribution, or they may make a counter to witchcraft as it is today. To destroy.
16. The practice of witchcraft is also found among the Indian tribals. A witchcraft can injure anyone by any mental act and gradually lead to his death. This power originates from a certain substance in the witch’s body. Witchcraft can explain all unfortunate events. It plays its role in fishing, agricultural activities in the pastoral life of the village as well as in the communal life. Thus witchcraft plays a major role in the overall life of the tribal community. For example, if the maize crop is diseased, it is considered witchcraft. If the milch cow dries up, it is due to witchcraft.
17. The phenomenon of witchcraft has been explained by various reasons. Although there is a natural cause, but why did the accident happen and why did it happen to that particular person? One person was injured after being hit by the bull. Why this man? And why this bull? Witchcraft is a causative factor in the production of harmful events in particular places and in relation to particular persons at particular times. If a tree falls and kills a man, that is natural but why did it fall when he was passing by.
18. An oracle is consulted to determine if a person is casting a spell on another person. One of the most popular types of divination is the poison divination. The chickens are taken to the bush and given a small amount of poison. If the fowl remains alive, the man is declared a witch. Those who practice witchcraft are not magicians who heal diseases. There are other types of specialists who counteract magic. A witch doctor is an astrologer who exposes witches and a magician who thwarts them. He also acts as a leech or doctor.

 

 

 

magic and science

 

 

Tylor was the first to describe magic as a science. The question that troubled him and aroused his curiosity was that when there is no scientific basis for religion then why do the tribals follow it? The question was reasonable and demanded an answer. Tylor observed that the aborigines themselves knew that magic was not true, yet it had an important place in their lives.

He considered answering the question:

(1) Magic is related to common sense behavior.

(2) The one who does the magic is actually the nature too.

(3) even when magic fails to perform a certain action, there is no fault in it; Something must have gone wrong with the practice of magic.

(4) If magic hurts something, there is always counter magic.

(5) The success stories of magic far outweigh its failures.

Tylor argues that the systematic development of magic takes the form of science. The essence of their argument is that magic operates on the principles of nature. Nature runs by positivist laws, so it is also a science.

Fraser does not consider magic to be a pure science. However, he believes that magic is a quasi-science. According to him, magic is based on some logic and rules. Ordinary people do not understand that witchcraft is practiced on rules that are similar to science. People only see the applied side of it.

 

They do not think about the principles that guide the magical performance. For a magician, magic is only an art, he does not even understand that these are principles that are based on complete science. In principle magic is based on abstract laws.

Malinowski has worked among the people of the Trobriand Islands. They have generated a rich trove of data, although they have notarized the question of the scientific nature of magic. He takes a functionalist perspective and states that magic exists in society; People practice it because it has certain functions to fulfill. However, he acknowledges that the methods of magic and science are, if not identical, in fact similar.

 

Magic and science both work on the logic of cause and effect.

Evans-Pritchard was a like-minded person of Tylor and Fraser. Despite their differing approaches all three agree on the following hypnosis

Other :

 

(1) There is some supernatural power. This power has two faces. One of its mouth is welfare and provides salvation to humans. Its second form is ugly and harmful. Science investigates the benevolent face while the ugly face casts a spell. Science and magic are two aspects of supernatural power.

(2) Ruth Benedict argues that magic is not a science. The findings of science are verifiable, whereas the findings of magic are beyond any verification.

(3) Continuous experiments are done in science. It has made tremendous progress during the last several centuries; Instead of registering any progress, magic is becoming increasingly oblivious. At least people show their belief in magic.

(4) The basis of science is pure

It is logic while the main premise of magic is flawed.

 

 

magic and religion

1. What is the relationship between magic and religion? The distinction comes with beings having more ore less personality, but most religious rites contain examples of magical symbolism, and a good deal of magic is involved in the context of spirits. In fact, it is not really possible to make a clear distinction between magic and religion.
2. There is a fundamental difference between religion and magic. First, the rituals of a religion are public and collective. They affect people as a whole, absorbing all their energies for the duration of magic-religious activity. This gathering of large number of people for sowing, harvest feast and similar festivities brings the entire community in a mood of joy and harmony.

 

3. It gives serious and collective expression to the social sentiments of an organized community on which the constitution of the society depends.
4. Magico-religious rites are not meant for any celebration but to ward off or ward off impending evil. There are certain rites in magical practices related to hunting, which help in killing the animal easily. Sometimes, the whole hunt is performed in a ritual dance, with part of the animal’s skin. This clearly shows that magic is related to religion.

 

5. There are field reports by Malinowski and Leach which establish that magic is used for the successful attainment of goals. For example, Malinowski reports that when a fisherman floats on ocean currents, he casts a spell and believes that his boat will not meet any tragedy. Trobrinders also practice magic to win the heart of their beloved.

 

6. Durkheim, the founder of the sociology of religion, sees no difference between religion and magic. For him, both practices are meant to achieve certain objectives.

 

 

Some aspects of religion: the sacred, the profane, the church, cults and sects, priests, shamans.

structure

1. Durkheim is called the father of sociology of religion. He argues that there are certain elements of religion and these elements are determined by the society. For them religion is objective, it is a reality. He further says that religion is not the product of the individual. It is the child of the society.

 

2. When we discuss the sacred, the profane, the church and the cult, we refer to Durkheim and say that these aspects are created by society. In other words, those things which are sacred to society are sacred in religion; The things which are impure to the society are impure to the individual.

 

3. Things that are respected are sacred to Hindus. These are offered to the gods and goddesses. The impure has a use value, the bicycle, the engine, the factory has a use value for society. th
4. They are utilitarian. Durkheim thus describes all things in the world into the sacred and the profane.

 

 

 

Durkheim’s religious views

 

1. Theoretically the Forms Elementaires contain two distinct though interrelated elements, a theory of religion and an epistemology. The principle of religion will be considered first, because it forms the inevitable connecting link between what has gone before and epistemology.
2. Durkheim has two fundamental distinctions from which Durkheim stands apart. The first is pure and profane. It is a classification of things into two categories, for the most part tangible things, often though by no means always material things.

 

3. However, the two classes are distinguished not with reference to any intrinsic properties of objects, but with reference to human attitudes toward them. Sacred things are things set apart by a peculiar tendency of respect which is expressed in various ways. They are believed to possess specific qualities in the form of special powers; Contracting with them is either particularly beneficial or particularly dangerous, or both.

 

4. Above all, man’s relations with sacred objects are not taken as a general matter, but always as a matter of special approach, special respect and special precautions. To anticipate the outcome of the latter analysis, sacred things are distinguished by the fact that humans do not treat them in a utilitarian way, certainly not use them as means to ends that have intrinsic value. Based on the qualities they are adapted to, but separate them from these other unholy things. As Durkheim says, profane activity is par excellence economic activity. The approach of calculation of utility is antithetical to respect for sacred things.

 

5. What is more natural from a utilitarian point of view than for an Australian to kill and eat his totem animal? But since it is a sacred object, that is precisely what it cannot do. If he does eat it, it is only on formal occasions, totally separate from the workday, that he seeks satisfaction. Thus sacred things, except precisely in this utilitarian relation, are protected from all kinds of taboos and restrictions. Religion is related to holy things.
6. The second fundamental distinction is that between two categories of religious phenomena—beliefs and rites. The first is the form of thought, the second of action. But the two are inseparable, and central to every religion.
7. The rituals of a religion are inconceivable without knowing its beliefs. yes

Although the two are inseparable, there is no particular relation of priority—the point being the distinction at present. Religious beliefs, then, are beliefs related to sacred objects, their origin, behavior, and significance to man.

 

8. Samskaras are actions performed in relation to sacred things. Religion for Durkheim is a ‘unified (cohesion) system of beliefs and practices relating to sacred things, separate and taboo, united in a moral community called a church, by those who follow it. The last criterion is the one that will be considered later, since the process by which it is derived cannot be understood without further analysis of the other criteria.
9. In fact Durkheim introduced the concepts of the sacred and the profane in his book The Elementary Forms of the Religion’s Life, first published in 1912. This is perhaps the most influential interpretation of religion from a functional point of view. According to him all societies divide the world into two categories: the sacred and the profane. Sometimes impure is also called unholy. Religion is based on this division. Durkheim writes:
10. Religion is based on this division. It is a unified system of beliefs and practices relating to sacred objects, i.e. things that are set apart and forbidden.
11. Among the primary forms of religious life, Durkheim defines the concept of the sacred as:
12. By sacred things one should not understand only those personal things which are called deities or souls, a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a house, anything in the world can be sacred Is.
13. For Durkheim there is really nothing about the special properties of a pebble or a tree that makes them sacred. Therefore, sacred things must be symbols, they must represent something, to understand the role of religion in society, and establish a connection between sacred symbols and what they represent.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Churches, Cults and Sects

1. It was Max Weber who initiated the formulation of categories for the analysis of religious organization. It is important to note that these categories were formulated specifically in the context of Christianity. Their applicability to the analysis of other religious traditions is problematic.

 

2. Max Weber discusses the dichotomy between church and sect in The Protestant
3. Ethnicity and Spirit of Capitalism. Differentiating between churches and sects, Weber writes:
4. The fundamental difference between a church that was ‘a kind of trust’
5. Dedication to supernatural purposes, an institution that necessarily includes both the just and the unjust…’ and ‘the Church of the Believers, which saw itself as ‘only a community of reincarnated individual believers, and only This. In other words, focus not as a church but as a denomination.’

 

6. Since this distinction was made in his discussion of Baptists, Mennonites, and Quakers, it is clear that Weber attached significant importance to membership doctrine as a key feature of sects, and he emphasized the sectarian provision that ‘only adults who have personally received their faith, they should be baptized.’ Much of the later debate about the development of the sect has focused on this feature; And some of the other features that Weber attributed to sects as opposed to churches have also been employed in later research.

 

7. The observation, for example, that separation from the state is characteristic of some churches as well as of sects, and thus cannot be said to be a distinguishing feature of sects, and thus cannot be said to be a distinctive feature of sects, One seems closely linked to the numeracy approach of later sociologists. Similarly, the shared though differently interpreted concept of extra-ecclesiastical nulla salus held by both the Church and the Sect, which Weber pointed out, has been effectively adopted by David Martin to be the opposite of the Sect, which to some extent Tak has a unique ethos.

 

8. Weber’s description of the isolation from the world in communal groups has been extensively analyzed in the work of Brian Wilson.

 

 

 

Sect

1. Sect is a part of a wider religion. Like Buddhism has two sects Hinayana and Mahayana and Hinduism has Shaiva, Shakta and Vaishnava. That’s why there are different sects in Christianity.
2. Weber noted that within each self-governing circle of a sect, an exceptionally strict moral discipline was practiced to maintain the purity of the entire community.

 

3. This seems equivalent to Wilson’s argument that sects have totalitarian authority over their members, but Weber was concerned to draw a parallel with a different type of religious organization. After pointing out that the discipline of an ascetic sect is far more rigorous than that of any church, he continues: ‘In this respect, the sect resembles another sectarian feature, which is not peculiar to churches, and It is dominated by elements.

 

4. A denomination contrasts strongly with the professional ministry of a church – this emphasis is related to the different definition of charisma by each organization. Require that the members of the sect practice fraternity in their dealings with each other

Similarly a logical extension of the observation that each sect is based on a local community predominately of committed believers.

 

 

 

creed

1. Anthropologists have worked on the concept of cult. A cult is a set of practices and beliefs of a group in relation to a local Go. In sociology, it is a small group of religious activities whose beliefs are usually synergistic, esoteric, and individualistic. Although it is related to the concept of a sect, the cult is not in Western society associated with mainstream Christianity.

 

2. As a scientific term, it is often difficult to separate the idea of a cult from its derogatory significance to common sense and does not have a precise scientific meaning. Cultural practices appear to cater to the needs of marginalized sections of urban, middle-class youth. Cultural membership among young people is usually fleeting.

 

3. Spasmodic, and irregular. Research societies, cults have sprung up in the post-war period, and are often associated with the counter-culture.
4. Steve Bruce refers to ‘mysticism’ as a tradition within Christianity apart from church and denomination. Bruce describes it this way:
5. Unlike other forms it (cult) was a highly individualistic expression, varying with individual experiences and interpretation.
6. For Bruce, this corresponds to the idea of a cult, which is:
7. A loose-knit group organized around some common themes and interests, but lacking any clearly defined and exclusive belief system.
8. A cult is more individualistic than other organized forms of religion. Because it lacks a definite principle.

 

9. Cults tolerate other beliefs and indeed their own beliefs are often so vague that they have no concept of heresy. Cults often have customers rather than members, and these customers may have relatively little involvement with any organization. From them he learned the fundamentals of the beliefs around which the cult is based.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Concept of priesthood/priesthood

 

1. In the most common parlance. Priest is a religious functionary whose role is to administer an established religion – to celebrate traditional rituals, practices and beliefs. Two essential features characterize them, namely, regular cult, and rootedness in a religious institution. Weber explains that “it is more correct for our purpose to judge
2. For the diverse and mixed manifestations of this phenomenon. The specialization of a particular group of individuals in the continuous operation of a cult enterprise, permanently associated with particular norms, places, and times, to establish as a significant feature of the priesthood. and belonging to specific social groups. The first characteristic implies that, “the priest’s main function … is religious … Worship as an expression of religious experience, however primitive or rudimentary in form, is the priest’s chief concern.

 

3. He guarantees the correct performance of ceremonial acts of worship.” The priest mediates between God and humans; he not only interprets the divine will but regulates and strengthens the relationship between God and his fellow human beings. The basis of its existence and authority is a constant and regular communication with the divine.

 

4. “Regular liturgical observance and a certain theology are necessary for the priesthood. Weber reiterates that there can be no priesthood without a cult, although there can be a cult without a particular priest because of metaphysical ideas and special Morality is missing in the case of a cult without priests.
5. The second essential characteristic of a priest is his association with an organized religion and legitimacy by religious authorities. An extended, cross-cultural description of priest is “any religious expert who serves religiously for or on behalf of a community.

 

6. The priest resides in a religious organization as the representative of that establishment, and his functions mediate between its traditions and the people.” Unlike other related role types, “the priest serves at the altar in a temple or temple, As the representative of the community in its relations with the deities and by virtue of the status and functions of the holy order which is conferred upon him upon his consecration, fulfilling the sanctity and attendant taboos.

 

7. Bendix paraphrases Weber, and reiterates that the priest functions in a sacred tradition, and that “even when the priest has a personal charisma, his function is legitimate only on the basis of the regular organization of worship”. Is.” Regarding the Levitical priests of Judaism, Brown explains that “even if a man was born into a priestly tribe, he was to be ordained to the priestly office.” Often a priest is the official representative of a religion.

 

8. Greenwood, in affirming that the priest is called as a witness, says, ‘The priest is required to be personally representative of all the other members of the jocular church within which he (the priest) is the wider community presides over. ,
9. Preparation and education play an important role in the priesthood. The systematic training of priests aimed at developing the faculties and abilities necessary for the performance of the liturgy.

I have to help them. It is centered in the development and maintenance of the piper’s dialogue with the marks, which results in the mana or ‘purity’ of the priests. While ascetic practices are meant to bring the body and will under the necessary control, meditation and prayer are meant to prepare the soul, and instruction and study to train the mind.

 

10. The history of the development of religions is evidence that great systems of knowledge and schools of learning of various disciplines have emerged in association with centers of training for priests. The rational training and discipline of priests is distinguished from a combination of partly “awakening education” using irrational means and aimed at reincarnation, and partly training in the purely empirical lore of magicians.
11. Priest and related role types
12. The identity of the priest can be better understood by separating it from other related role types. The priest is different from the magician. The word shaman comes from the Siberian Tungus noun saman which means “he who excites, moves, raises.” As a verb it means “to know in an ecstatic way.” The shaman is a person with a “high degree of nervous excitement” (often an epileptic). He is a charismatic61 transcendent personality – one who in a state of ecstasy actually displays the presence of the Holy. Vaston LaBarre writes, “The real difference between a shaman and a priest is who and where God is, inside or outside.”
13. Priest is not a magician. In today’s society, a magician is one who
14. Makes visible objects disappear, or makes invisible objects appear as a means of entertainment. But this has not always been the case. According to Wach, magic is meant to compel the mark to give what is desired, while religion, with which the priests are associated, is meant to present and worship the divine power upon which man feels dependent. Is.

 

15. The authority of a magician is proportionate to the fulfillment of the expectations of his clients. His reputation is less firmly established and more dependent on his professional ‘success’ than that of the Prophet. On the one hand Weber sees in many religions
16. Including in Christianity, the concept of priesthood includes a magical qualification. But on the other hand, he agrees with Wach that the priest is a worker in a regularly organized and permanent enterprise concerned with influencing the gods through worship, in contrast to the individual and occasional efforts of magicians, who magically They force the deities. means. While the priest works in the interest of his organization, the shaman is self-employed. Furthermore, the professional equipment of specialized knowledge, fixed doctrine, and professional qualifications of priests bring them in contrast to magicians, prophets, and other types of religious functionaries who manifest in miracles and revelations based on personal gifts (charisma).
17. A priest is different from a prophet. A prophet is one who confronts the powers that be and the established way of doing things, while claiming to be taken seriously on religious authority. Weber finds that “personal calling is the decisive element that distinguishes the prophet from the priest. The latter claims authority based on his service in a sacred tradition, while the prophet’s claim is based on personal revelation and charisma. It does not Is.

 

18. It is a coincidence that almost no prophets have emerged from the priestly class … The priest, the apparent opposite, bestows salvation by virtue of his office. Emphasizing the distinctiveness of the prophetic call, Wach states, “The organ, instrument, or consciousness of being. The mouthpiece of divine will characterizes the self-interpretation of the prophet. And the messenger prophet who addresses his demands to the world in the name of God.” Huh.

 

19. Naturally these demands are moral, and are often of an active ascetic character. Vernon observes that prophets usually appear during periods of turmoil, when established value systems are being challenged. They are rarely welcomed in peacetime.
20. According to Nisbet, the prophet and the magician have certain common features, namely occult powers and a perception of importance in times of collective crisis or personal hardship. But they are different.
21. But whereas the prophet’s central function is to interpret sacred tradition and to deprive the population at large of ways to gain access to the deity, the shaman’s central function is to effect exceptions to the natural order … The Shaman’s Role belongs to the doer – but what he does is reserved for times of crisis and activities that are affected by risk or uncertainty of outcome. His role is the result of the special knowledge he holds for himself and his legitimate descendants. knowledge that he reserves for himself and his legitimate descendants.
22. It is not feasible to make clear distinctions between these role types or even to categorize them in ways that are universally acceptable to all religions. At any rate, Wacht locates the uniqueness of the priesthood in the broad nature of the priests’ activities. “The institution of the priesthood is bereft of individual religious charisma of the great kind, but the priesthood is the most widespread of all exclusively religious activities in the history of man. The sociological implications and import of this activity are correspondingly far-reaching.
23. Among these role types, some religious traditions have a

A healthy, or sometimes unhealthy, competition is also observed.

 

24. It may occur between two different types of persons, for example, priest and prophet, or it may also occur within one person who is challenged with a role-set or multiple roles. In Buddhism a tension exists between holy men (monks), charged with the cultivation of wisdom, mental concentration and moral virtue, and priestly ritual specialists. The Sanskrit and Pala words, bhikshu and bhikku, meaning mendicant or mendicant, do not imply the role of a priest. Weber talks of a similar problem between monotheism and Hierocratic charism in Christianity. ,

 

25. Inherent tensions emerge, more genuine monasticism is independent of institutional charisma because its own charisma is immediate to God.” The combination of the three role types—priest, king, and prophet—represents a similar conflict in the role type of the Christian priest today. leave room for
26. Development of the priesthood
27. It is not easy to trace the exact evolution of the role of priests in different religions, the main difficulty being the cross-cultural use of the terms priest and priesthood. Has been applied to a range of events around the world, often with European connotations and linguistic derivations. Furthermore, the division of labor that existed among the priestly class in early societies is not dear enough to us. However, a look at hi
28. The history of religions readily reveals to us some common features and stages in the process of the development of the priesthood.
29. The Journey from the Natural Priesthood to the Professional Priesthood in Religions
30. The origin of the priesthood is said to be attributed to the universal need for the mediation of superhuman help felt by mankind in the struggle for life. In its development we note two phases, namely the phase of the natural priesthood and the phase of the professional or regular priesthood. There are indications to confirm that originally all invoked their own deities.

 

31. In the early times, the worship was confined to the deity members of the kin and later to the people of the tribes. Then the heads of families or tribes most spontaneously performed worship, which was later confined to the members of the clans, and later to the members of the tribes themselves. The heads of families or tribes then most naturally assumed the priestly role because they, as the oldest and most experienced members of the family, were closest to the ancestors. increased, a regular priesthood was introduced. As not everyone is equally skilled in mediation, professionals are expected to have expertise, greater knowledge and power to secure a better outcome.

 

32. But to a large extent the two forms remained intertwined. Gradually those skilled in interpreting the wishes of the gods and practicing magical arts won the confidence of the people and gained a certain eminence and formed a special class. Certain classes of people who had unmistakable links to the priesthood—those who, when in a state of ecstasy, were believed to be inspired by the gods, who served in famous temples or sanctuaries, who performed miracles—were considered to be members of a regular priesthood. He was a pioneer. When rituals lost their simplicity, a professional priesthood became even more necessary.
33. The priestly functions are exercised between the same groups by their chiefs or leaders; Such as the father in a family, the head of a clan or tribe, the king of a nation or people. With the increasing development and differentiation of social organizations and stratification, major cult functions of the leader became associated with particular individuals or professional groups, and as a result, professional magicians, astrologers, and even soothsayers emerged in more differentiated “primitive” societies. Come ,
34. [These functions are referred to as quasi-priestly.] With the increasing complexity of cultural and social conditions, professional differentiation occurs, and a professional priesthood appears.
35. The history of many religions testifies to the development of priesthood from natural to regular or professional form. For example, in the case of Hinduism, Dr.
36. Radhakrishnan says that,
37. The original Aryans were all of the same class, each a priest and soldier, merchant and tiller of the soil. There was no privileged order of priests. The complexity of life led to the division of classes among the Aryans. Although in the beginning everyone could offer sacrifices to the gods without anyone’s mediation, the priesthood and the aristocracy separated themselves from the proletariat…to learn wisdom, poetic and speculative gifts, the priest, or before a set Became representative in worship under the title. In view of their noble function of maintaining the tradition of the Aryans, this class was freed from the necessity of struggle for existence… The Brahmins are not priests pledged to uphold fixed doctrines, but an intellectual elite which is relegated to molding the high life of the people.
38. It is pertinent to remark here that priesthood and cult have not been essential qualifications in all religions at all times. In the case of early Buddhism, for example, the possibility of a cultural priesthood was remote. “Sacrifice in Buddhism requiring the services of an officiating priest

Neither had any order or ritual, with expert knowledge of the importance of rituals and rites.

 

39. In fact the Buddhist scriptures mention instances in which the Buddha himself ridiculed the ritualistic practices of the Brahmin priests. But already during its early history in China, when faced with the strong cultural attributes of Confucianism, Buddhism adopted cultural practices. Hinduism talks of teacher-Brahmin, priest-Brahmin and superman-Brahmin.
40. Vocational priesthood exists in two forms, namely hereditary and vocational. According to the former, the priesthood is the privilege of a particular family or tribal lineage. Jewish Levitical priests, Hindu Brahmin priests and Zoroastrian priests are some examples. Vocational priesthood based on recruiting candidates from its pool of promising young members
41. Devotion, intellectual and moral qualities. Professional priests distinguish themselves by special vestments, long hair, distinct language, and ascetic rules such as sexual control and fasting. Along with institutionalization, elements such as initiation rites and training increased in importance. Whereas in the past most religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity – reserved the priesthood for male members, more recently some sections of religious membership such as the Anglican Church have advocated for the priesthood of women. While many religions throughout their history have found themselves moving from priestly celibacy for various reasons, the Latin Rite of Roman Catholicism is the strongest in favor of it in contemporary times.
42. As history develops, in the great world religions, representatives of the priesthood are organized into a highly complex structure in which a more or less differentiated hierarchy of groups with their various activities corresponds to the priestly hierarchy. In the beginning the divisions were on simple grounds such as natural groups (clan, tribe, people), local groups (village, city, district), and political groups (nation). Later, priests became associated with the formation of particular religious organizations, temporarily unified by the personal charisma of the priest leader alone, or organized as institutional units such as parishes.
43. Sacred vs. Secular Powers
44. According to the nature of the governance of a country, Weber identifies three types of relationship between secular and sacred powers in the history of the world. While in the first type, a ruler is legitimized by priests, in the second the high priest is also the king, and in the third, the secular ruler exercises supreme authority even in sacred matters. Thus while some countries had kings who were also priests, some other countries had priests who were also kings. Even in Islam, where unlike most other religions, there is no class of priests or clerics,
45. In the strict sense of the word, we find that there was a time when the roles of Imam (leader of prayers in worship rites in mosques) and ruler of the place were assigned to the same person.
46. When a governor was appointed in a province, he was also appointed as an Imam to lead the prayers, and this practice continued for a long time. In fact, leading the prayers (imamat) in Islam was as great an honor as the monarchy, and the two offices, the office of spiritual leader and the office of temporal leader, were for a long time combined in one person. As the ruler himself was the Imam at the centre, so were his governors at various provincial headquarters. There was no place in early Islam for the priest and the current mullah.
47. According to Weber, in hierarchical domination, the priestly authority seeks dominance at the cost of political power. Often the latter is presented as an inevitable evil, permitted by God because of the sinfulness of the world, and which believers must forsake but avoid. Sometimes it is even presented as a God-given tool for the subjugation of anti-church forces. “In practice, therefore, the hierarchy seeks to turn the political ruler into a vassal and deprive him of independent means of power…” Meanwhile, the hierarchy does everything possible to protect itself: an autonomous administrative apparatus , a tax system (tithes), legal forms (endowments) to protect church holdings, bureaucratization of administration, and the development of the charisma of the office at the expense of personal charisma.
48. In Weber’s mind, the extreme opposite of any form of hierarchy is caesaropapism—the complete subordination of priests to secular powers. Here religious relations are only a branch of political administration. Political rulers fulfill these obligations either directly or with the help of state-maintained priestly professionals. Caesaro-papism is nowhere to be found in its purest form, as a rule the priestly charisma reconciles with the secular power, either tacitly or even through a concordat. Overall, the general picture of the relationship between the two painted by Weber is that of a cold war.
49. “State and society everywhere have been deeply affected by the struggle between the royal and the priestly, between the military and the temple nobility. This struggle did not always lead to open conflict, but it did give rise to distinctive features and differences.. .”
50. According to Aberbach, even though sacred and religion

While there are significant differences between the absolutes, the history of religion testifies to the close parallels between the two: while charisma, even in its secular forms, has a religious dimension, traditional religious charisma is rarely devoid of political and other significance. “Political charisma draws on the language, sentiment, and even ideological convictions of religion. Charismatic religious leadership is no less

51. With politics. Devotees of the religious charismatic are inspired not only by his message but also by his political acumen and military success. The major religions of the ancient world were all official state religions. He was educated in religious schools, and had the outstanding qualities associated with religious leadership: Washington’s personal humility, Garibaldi’s austerity, Robespierre’s propensity for solitude and meditation. He concluded that, “the many parallels between religious and political charisma mean that in practice the association between both charismatic political leaders and figures of religious authority – priest and prophet, savior and messiah – although differing in intensity, is of little surprise.” matter. Fifteen years on, and the ‘righteousness’ of government which reflects the involvement of the modern state in the ‘deeper’ issues of human life, and the way in which state-organised societies, in varying degrees, worship and ‘deeper’ identity has become an object of
52. It is challenging to note here that in the development of most religions, if not all, the priesthood was always limited to cult activities. Priests perform a number of other functions: directly or indirectly related to liturgical functions. He is the custodian of traditions and protector of the sacred knowledge and techniques of meditation and prayer.

 

53. He is the guardian of the sacred law corresponding to the cosmic moral and ritual order. As interpreter of this law, the priest can act as judge, administrator, teacher and scholar, and formulate standards and rules of conduct. Since he performs sacred rites, he contributes to the development of sacred song, writing, literature, music, dance, sacred painting, sculpture, and architecture. As guardians of tradition, priests are also wise men, advisors, teachers, and philosophers. In the extent to which these diverse functions are performed, differences exist between religions according to the stage of development from primitive civilizations to highly developed ritualistic religions.
54. The Babylonian priests had much to do not only with the interpretation of morals
55. And religious law, but also with many civil enactments. It was the duty of some of them to receive the tithes, and to certify that they had been paid. Shinto priests are said to “serve not only in the performance of formal shrine rituals but also bear responsibility for administrative functions such as the maintenance and management of shrine facilities and finances… (after World War II later), great expectations are also placed on them for activities in the fields of social welfare and education.”

 

56. Between the Indo-Aryan speaking invaders of north-west India and the end of the second millennium BC. The priestly social class was “responsible not only for a wide range of cultural works but also for the creation and preservation of sacred traditions of oral poetry.” The Rigveda mentions purohit (household priest of the king or some wealthy elite) who were not only in constant and intimate service to the king, but also had a close association with the king in his more mundane functions. the ethics of compassion (karuna) was
57. The fundamental driving force of Buddhism. Buddhist monks have therefore traditionally played the role of spiritual advisors and teachers to laypeople. It is now not uncommon to find sangha social services in Theravada countries such as Thailand and Sri Lanka.

 

 

58. In Judaism, apart from cultural functions, priests had supernatural functions, medical functions, instructional and judicial functions, and administrative and political functions. In fact, history testifies that during the period of the Second Temple, when Judea and Jerusalem were under the dominion of foreign empires. The priesthood of Jerusalem played an important political role, with priests also serving as leaders of Jewish communities.

 

59. There is no caste, class or profession in Islam proper that holds a monopoly on the performance of religious rites. When these were first performed publicly, the leader was appropriately the head of the community, and the name imam” ‘leader in prayer’ is hence used for ‘sovereign,’ ‘chief authority,’ and so on. led the sovereign prayer.
60. Because of priests’ direct and immediate contact with the people who depend on them for God’s intercession, priests exercise tremendous influence over them. Not only in hierarchically classified ecclesiastical bodies but also in religious groups of more or less egalitarian bodies, religious leaders can become trusted, properly respected, and indispensable guides to their followers. basically a predominantly religious
61. Influence, influence extends to moral, social, cultural; and political field.
62. There is ample evidence in the history of religions to show that the decline of priests and priestesses has been a part of almost all religious traditions at one time or another. Scholars of Indian thought ranged from the simple offerings of the early Vedic period to the complex and ritual offerings of the Brahmanical period.

here has been a change in the sacrifices associated with this. Persuasion of the gods was replaced by coercion of the gods, while yagya was placed above even the gods. Introducing a distinctly magical element to the rituals, “the priest and the prayer are then transformed into witchcraft and spells.”

 

1. Speaking about the Namboothiris who were temple priests in Kerala, Thulasidharan says it was the remunerative services that attracted them. They lived in extreme comfort and luxury. Although he was supposed to be the guardian of the morality of the society, he did nothing of the sort. “On the contrary, they were only eager to drink the sweet honey of life lees, not leaving a drop for the lower castes.” Some historians trace a similar situation among Christian clergy to the time before the Protestant Reformation. Ridicule, corruption, selling of indulgences and greed for wealth were the characteristics of the age.
2. Nevertheless, priests have often throughout history been considered authoritative between the sacred and the profane. “Throughout the long and varied history of religion, the priesthood has been the official institution that has maintained a position of mediation and balance between the sacred and profane aspects of human society and that has exerted a stabilizing influence on social structure and cultural organization.” But priests Various administrative duties derived from the cultural activities of the Therefore, the less communication there is with the number expressed in the formal cult, the closer it is to the shaman. “So long as the mediation of the priest is desired to secure material or ideal benefits (du deus), religion is close to magic, but rises to a higher level where it becomes an act of thanksgiving and worship to the priest.” One’s own and other’s name goes.”

 

 

 

 

shaman

Currently there is unprecedented interest, enthusiasm and confusion about shamanism. Shamanic literature, rituals and workshops are flourishing and have given rise to a veritable cottage industry. There are actually shamanistically trained Anthropolo Geists like Michael Harner and highly controversial figures like Lynn Andrews, “The Shaman of Beverly Hills” (Clifton, 1989) offering shamanism workshops. Given that only a few years ago there was concern that shamanism would soon become extinct, it is clear that the tradition, or at least its contemporary Western version, is doing well.

What is not so clear is what exactly a shaman is. In fact, there is considerable controversy over this controversial point. On the one hand the ideas of the showman have been described as “mentally deranged” and “a complete psycho” (Devereaux, 1961) p “true idio (Wiesler, 1931), a charlatan, epileptic and, perhaps most often (Kacker , 1982; Shaman Noli, 1983) a histrionic or schizophrenic.

On the other hand, an opposite but equally radical approach seems to be emerging in popular literature. Here satanic states are being identified with Buddhism, Yoga or Christian mysticism. Thus, for example, Holger Kalveit (1988, p. 236)

The author would like to thank the following people {or their contributions to the preparation of this paper. Michael Harner provided both theoretical and practical information and introduced a large number of diabolical techniques. Marlene Dobkins de Rios provided bibliographic assistance while Frances Vaughan and Miles

Wich provided valuable feedback on earlier drafts of this paper. As always, Bonnie L’Allier provided excellent secretarial and administrative support.

shamans and shamanism as unique phenomena

Claims that the exorcist “experiences existential unity—the samadhi of the Hindus or what Western spiritualists and mystics call Enlightenment, Enlightenment mystica,” as if uniformly reaching the same state of consciousness.

Unfortunately these comparisons seem to be seriously flawed, being based on gross similarities rather than careful phenomenological comparisons (Walsh, 1990). Space does not permit such analyzes to be presented here. Suffice it to say that when careful phenomenological comparisons are made, it becomes clear that demonic experiences differ significantly from traditional categories of mental illness or those of mystics of other traditions (Nollie, 1983; Walsh 1990).

Therefore, contrary to much popular and professional thinking, we cannot define (or productively discuss) shamans and shamanism in terms of either clinical categories or other mystical traditions. Rather we need to consider and define them as unique phenomena. clearly an adequate definition can do much to help reduce

Huge confusion regarding the nature of shamanism.

definition

The word itself comes from varman of the Tungus people of Siberia, meaning “one who is excited, shaken, raised.” It may be derived from an ancient Indian word meaning “to warm oneself or do penance” (Slacker, 1986) or from a Tungus verb meaning “to know” (Hultcrantz, 1973). But whatever its etymology The term shaman has been widely adopted by anthropologists to refer to specific groups of religious practitioners in various cultures who are sometimes called medicine men, witch doctors, magicians, sorcerers, magicians, or seers. However, these terms are not specific to healers. do not define subgroups well enough to fit more rigorous definitions of mitigation

, The meaning and significance of this definition, and of shamanism itself, will become clear if we examine the way in which our definitions and understanding of shamanism have evolved over time.

Early anthropologists were particularly intrigued by the shamans’ unique interactions with “spirits”. Many people of the tribe may claim to revere, see, or even possess the spirits. However, only the shaman claimed to have some degree of control over them and to be able to command, commune and intervene with them for the benefit of the tribe.

Thus Shirokogoroff (1935, p. 269),’ one of the early explorers of the Siberian Tungus people, stated that:

In all Tungus languages this word (saman) refers to individuals of both sexes who have mastery over spirits, who project these spirits into themselves at will and use their power over spirits in their own interests. especially helping other people who are suffering from it. Spirits; In such a capacity they may have a range of specialized methods for dealing with emotions.

But whereas early researchers were most influenced by shamans’ interactions with spirits, later researchers have been influenced by shamans’ control of their own states of consciousness in which these interactions occur (Dobkin, de Rios & Winkleman, 1989; Nolley, 1983; Petersl, 981; Peters and Shamanism Price-Williams, 1980, 1983) As Western culture has become more interested in altered states of consciousness (ASC), the first researchers have become interested in the use of altered state tradition in religious practices (Tarte , 1983a) , b), and it appears that the first tradition to use such states was shamanism. Contemporary altered definitions of shamanism have therefore focused on the use of states such as shamanism (Harner, 1982; Knolly, 1983; Peet & Price-Williams, 1980).

 

 

 

Origin of Shamas

However, there are many, many possible states of consciousness (Shapiro & Walsh, 1984; Walsh & Vaughn, 1980; Wilber, 1977, 1980), and so the question naturally arises as to which are specific and defining for shamanism. , The broad definition has broad and narrow definitions. “The only defining characteristic is that the specialist enters into a controlled ASC on behalf of his community” (Petes Price Williams, 1980, p. 408), such specialists would include, for example, Mediums who enter a trance and then claim to speak for a spiritist should note the point that the use of the term “spirits” here does not necessarily imply that there exist separate entities that interact with people in control. or communicate. Rather the term is being used to describe only the way in which shamans and mediums interpret their experiences.

So a broad definition of shamanism would include any practitioner who enters controlled altered states of consciousness, whatever those particular states are. Narrower definitions on the other hand specify altered staters) quite precisely as ecstatic states. Indeed, Mircea Eliade (1964, one of the greatest religious scholars of the 20th century), “the first definition, and perhaps the least dangerous, of this complex phenomenon would be: the shamanistic technique of ecstasy.” Here ecstasy does not mean much ecstasy, but There is more. Emotion, as Random House Dictionary defines it as the taking or transfer of oneself or oneself out of one’s normal state and entering into a state of intense or heightened emotion. As we shall see, Especially suitable for shamanism.

The distinguishing feature of shamanic ecstasy is the experience of “soul flight” or “travel” or “out-of-body experience” (Eliaud, 1964; Harner, 1982). That is, shamans in the ecstatic state experience themselves, or their soul/spirit, flying through space and traveling either to other worlds or to distant parts of this world. In other words, “the shaman specializes in a trance, during which his soul is believed to leave his body and ascend to the heavens or descend to the underworld” (Eliad, 1964, p. 5). These flights reflect the satanic cosmology consisting of the three-tiered universe of the upper, middle and lower worlds, the middle corresponding to our Earth. Shaman is in this threefold work

LD systems tender to learn, gain strength, or diagnose and treat those who come for help and healing. During these visits the shaman may feel himself discovering the other world, meeting otherworldly people, animals or spirits, witnessing the cause and cure of a patient’s illness, or intervening with friendly or demonic forces.

So far, any definition we have includes three key features of shamanism. The first is that shamans can voluntarily enter an altered state of consciousness. Another is that in these states they experience themselves as traveling out of their body to other realms, which is a contemporary of some out-of-body experiences (Munroe, 1971; Irvine, 1985) or lucid dreams (LaBarge, 1985). is in line with the report. , Third, they use these journeys as a means to gain knowledge or power and to help people in their community.

 

Conversations with spirits are also frequently mentioned in definitions of Satanism. In addition, Michael Harner, an anthropologist whose

There may be a more personal experience of refugee practices here than in any other Western country. suggests that a key element of Satanic practices may be “contact with an ordinarily hidden reality” (Harner, 1982, p. 25). Thus he defines a shaman as “a man or woman who uses an altered form of consciousness to contact and use an ordinarily hidden reality in order to gain knowledge, power, and help other persons.” enters a state of being” (Harner, 1982, p. 25).

Should these two additional elements, “contacting a hidden reality” and “communication with spirits” be included as essential elements of the definition of shamanism? Here we are on difficult philosophical ground. Surely this is what shamans feel and believe they are doing. However it is a huge philosophical leap to assume that this is actually what they are doing. The precise nature of both the worlds (or ontological states in philosophical terms) in which shamans perceive themselves and the entities they encounter is an open question. For the shaman they are interpreted as independent and completely “real”; To a Western person with no belief in other realms or entities they would likely be interpreted as subjective mind creations.

In fact, it may be impossible to decide this question. Technically speaking we can have an example of ontological uncertainty due to the under-determinism of the theory by observation. More simply speaking, it is the inability to determine the ontological status of a phenomenon because observations allow multiple theoretical interpretations. The result is that the interpretation of such uncertain pheno mena (“and” spirits ” in this case of the nature of hidden reality) depends largely on one’s own philosophical inclination or worldview. We can therefore place shamanism on secure grounds. define if we leave these questions as much as possible to philosophical interpretation.

Briefly, shamanism can be defined as a family of traditions whose practitioners focus on voluntarily summarizing altered states of consciousness in which they experience the definition of self, or their spirit(s), Travels to other locations and interacts with other entities at the request of other entities. To serve their shamanism community.

Original

Whatever its origin, shamanism is widely spread throughout the world. It is found today in large areas such as Siberia, North and South America and Australia and is thought to have been present in most parts of the world at one time or another. The remarkable similarities between shamans from widely spread areas of the world raise the question of how these similarities evolved. One possibility is that they arose spontaneously in different places, perhaps due to a common human instinct or recurrent social need. The second is that they resulted from migration and diffusion from a common ancestor.

If migration is the answer, then that migration must have started long ago. Shamanism occurs among tribes with so many different languages that diffusion from a common ancestor must have begun at least 20,000 years ago (Winkelman, 1984).

This long time period makes it difficult to explain why satanic practices would remain stable in so many cultures for so long while language and social practices changed so rapidly. These difficulties make it seem unlikely that migration alone can account for the long history and far-flung distribution of shamanism.

It follows that if the worldwide, history-long distribution of shamanism cannot be attributed to diffusion from a single invention in prehistoric times, they must be discovered and rediscovered in different times and cultures. Was. This suggests that some recurring combination of social forces and innate abilities acquired and maintained Satanic roles, rituals, and states of consciousness over and over again.

Shamanism rediscovered across diverse times and cultures

certainly appears to be evidence of some innate human tendency to enter into conspicuous change

d State. Studies of various meditation traditions suggest that innate instincts to reach altered states can be very accurate. For example, for two and a half thousand years Buddhists have described reaching eight highly specific and distinct states of extreme concentration. These concentrated states, that phantasm, are extremely subtle, stable and blissful and have been described very precisely over the millennia (Buddhagosha, 1923; Gole Man, 1988). Today some western seekers have started reaching out to them and I have had the privilege of interviewing three of them. In each case his experiences match up remarkably well with ancient accounts. Clearly then it appears that the human mind has some innate tendency to settle into certain states if it is given the right conditions or practices.

The same principle may apply to satanic states. Observations of Westerners in satanic workshops suggest that most people are able to enter satanic states to some degree. these states

It can also be triggered by a variety of situations which suggests that there may be some inherent tendency in the mind to adopt them. The situations that trigger them may include such natural events as isolation, fatigue, ingesting -mic sounds, or hallucinogens (Winkleman, 1984; Walsh, 1989, 1990). Thus they will be rediscovered by different generations and cultures. Since the states can be pleasurable, meaningful, and therapeutic, they will be actively sought and the ways to induce them will be remembered and transmitted across generations.

Distribution due to innate tendency and diffusion

Thus shamanism and its widespread distribution may reflect an innate human tendency to enter certain pleasurable and valuable states of consciousness. Once discovered, customs and beliefs supporting the entry and manifestation of states would also arise, and shamanism would once again emerge. This natural tendency can be supported and expanded by communication between cultures. For example, shamanism in northern Asia appears to have been modified by the importation of yogic practices from India (Eliad, 1964). Thus the global distribution of shamanism may be due to both instinct and the spread of information. The end result is that this ancient tradition spread across the Earth and probably survived for tens of thousands of years, a period that represents a significant proportion of the time that fully evolved humans (modern Homo sapiens) have been on the planet. are on.

Given that shame has been around for so long and is so widespread, it naturally begs the question of why it occurs in some cultures and not others. Answers are beginning to emerge from cross-cultural research. A notable study examined 47 societies spanning approximately 4000 years from 1750, ie, the Babylonians, to the present century (Winkelman, 1984, 1989). It is interesting to note that, prior to Western influence, all 47 of these cultures used altered states of consciousness as the basis for religious and medical practices. Although shamanic practices were found in most regions of the world, they occurred only in certain types of societies. These were mainly simple nomadic hunting and gathering societies. These people depended little on agriculture and had almost no social class or political organization. Within these tribes the shaman played many roles, both sacred and mundane: medicine taker, healer, ritual performer, keeper of cultural myths, medium, and master of spirits. With his multiple roles and the power vacuum introduced by a classless society, the shaman exerted a great influence on his tribe and people.

However, as societies develop and become more complex, it appears that this situation changes dramatically. Indeed, as societies become sedentary rather than nomadic, agricultural rather than agricultural, and socially and politically classless rather than stratified, then shamanism seems to have disappeared (Winkleman, 1984, 1989). In its place appear a variety of specialists who focus on one of the magician’s many roles. Thus instead of shamans we find healers, priests, mediums and sorcerers/witches. They specialize in the practices of medicine, ritual, exorcism and malevolent witchcraft, respectively. An obvious contemporary western parallel to the older medical general practitioner or G.P. has to disappear. and the presence of diverse experts.

Some of these ancient experts have been compared to the shaman G.P. It is interesting to do with those who preceded them. Priests have emerged as representatives of organized religion and are often religious, moral and even political leaders. He is the leader of social rites and rituals. On behalf of their society, they pray to and propagate spiritual powers. However, unlike their demonic ancestors, they usually have little training or experience in altered states. (Hoppel, 1984).

while priests inherit a socially beneficial religious

Other magical roles of magicians, magicians inherit malevolent ones. Shamans were often hermaphrodite figures to their people, revered for their healing and helping powers, sorcerers and witches feared for their malevolent magic (Rogers, 1982), at least as they note in Winkleman (1984) and other anthropological studies. are experts in malevolent magic and as such they are feared, loathed and persecuted.

 

Origin of Religion (Evolutionary)

The sociology of religion in the nineteenth century was concerned with two main questions. ‘How did religion begin?’ and ‘How did religion develop?’ This evolutionary view was influenced by Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, published in 1859. Just as Darwin attempted to explain the origin and evolution of species, sociologists attempted to explain the origin and evolution of social institutions and society. In the context of religion, two main theories for its origin, animism and animism, were advanced.

 

 

animism, naturalism

1) Animism means belief in souls. Edward B. Tylor considers it the oldest form of religion. He argues that animism

derives from attempts to answer two questions, ‘What is it that differentiates between a living body and a dead one?’ and ‘What are those human shapes that appear in dreams and visions?’ To make sense of these phenomena, early philosophers invented the idea of the soul. A soul is a soul that leaves the body temporarily during dreams and visions, and permanently at death. Once invented, the idea of spirits was applied not only to humans, but also to many aspects of the natural and social environment. Thus animals were invested with a soul, as were man-made objects such as the bowler of the Australian Aborigines. Tylor argues that religion, in the form of animism, arose to satisfy man’s intellectual nature, to satisfy his need for death, dreams, and visions.

2) Naturism means the belief that the forces of nature have supernatural powers. F. Max Müller considers it the oldest form of religion. He argues that naturalism arose out of man’s experience of nature, particularly the effect of nature on man’s emotions. Wonder, terror, wonders and miracles happen in nature, such as volcanoes, thunder and lightning. Amazed by the power and wonders of nature, early man transformed abstract forces into personal agents. Man humanized nature. The force of the wind became the life of the wind, the force of the sun became the life of the sun. Where animism seeks the origin of religion in man’s intellectual needs, extremism seeks it in his emotional needs. Naturalism is man’s response to the effect of the power and wonder of nature on his senses.

3) From the origin of religion, the sociologists of the nineteenth century turned to its development. Many plans were developed, Tyler being one example. Tylor believed that human societies developed through five major stages, starting with simple hunting and gathering bands, and ending with the complex nation state. Similarly, religion developed through five stages, which corresponded with the development of society. Animism, the belief in a multitude of spirits, constituted the religion of the simplest societies; monotheism, the belief in a single supreme god, constituted the most complex religion. Tylor believed that each stage in the development of religion arose out of preceding stages and that the religion of modern man, ‘can be traced largely to only one god’.

4) A runaway product of an old and uncivilized system’.

5) There are several criticisms of the evolutionary approach. The origins of religion are lost in the past. The first indication of a possible belief in the supernatural dates from about 60,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence suggests that Neanderthals in the Near East buried their dead with flowers, stone tools, and jewelry. However, theories of the origin of religion can only be based on speculation and intelligent guesswork.

 

6) Evolutionists such as Tylor and Muller came up with plausible reasons for why certain beliefs were held by members of particular societies but this did not necessarily explain why those beliefs originated in the first place. Nor can it be argued that all religions are of the same origin. In addition, the clear, precise stages of the development of religion do not correspond to the facts. As Andrew Lang points out, many of the simplest societies have religions based on monotheism, which Tylor claimed was limited to modern societies.

 

 

 

 

7) Magic

8) Magic is practiced in many cultures, and uses methods to understand, experience, and influence the world in ways similar to religion. Hanegraaf argues that magic is in fact “…a largely controversial concept that has been used by various religious interest groups to describe either their own religious beliefs and practices or – more often – those of others”. to defame”.

 

9) The belief in and practice of witchcraft has existed since the earliest human cultures and continues to play an important religious and medicinal role in many cultures today.

10) Magic is the concept by which supernatural powers

11) Can be contacted.

 

12) The word “magic” is derived from the French word “maggie” which is used to refer to occult actions. Unlike religion, rituals are performed here to compel the supernatural power to act in particular ways. It never involves praise or prayer, rather it orders the Supreme Nature to serve good or bad purposes. Although magic and religion are opposite viewpoints it seems they have always existed together

13) Exemplary magic is based on the principle of similarity, while contagious magic is based on the principle of contact. The first principle derives from the notion that, like objects and actions, there is a relationship with each other.

14) Contagious magic works differently. Uneducated are often afraid to use other’s clothes. This is not for hygiene-consciousness, but for the concern of causing harm. Clothes are considered to be part of the body of the person who uses them. so much harm can be done to them

 

 

15) Easily and user impressed. It is nail biting, hair trimming, bodily excretions and some other very personal

Same goes for accessories. Magicians are in the habit of collecting these things in order to harm an enemy or an unwanted person. The name of a person sometimes used in contagious magic.

16) Magic can be good or bad according to the values of the concerned society. Magic aimed at good ends is called “white” magic, where as “black” magic has an evil aim. Both of these are found in all societies but the standards of judgment differ from culture to culture. Counter “black magic”, charms, amulets and spells are widely used. These are protective equipment against demons, devils and other evil forces.

 

17) Wearing small things like talismans on talismans protects the believer from great danger. Sir Fraser compared magic with modern science, saying that the cause-effect phenomena of magic coincided with the observations of experiments—science. Frazer not only turned his magical theories into laws; He also made a distinction between the theoretical and practical aspects of magic. Practical magic includes some positive and negative tools including sorcery, witchcraft, etc., while negative tools have many taboos. However, both sorcery and sorcery are symptomatic expressions of social tension and conflict.

 

 

 

 

18) positive negative

19) (witchcraft, witchcraft) (prohibition)

 

20) Witchcraft is a positive magic used for evil purposes. It involves the use of certain materials, objects or drugs to invoke supernatural power to harm people. The material here is the body parts on which specific mantras are used. It is purely a ‘black’ magic. Sorcerers are experts in witchcraft. They are so clever that sometimes instead of using tangible remains such as hair or nails; They use the shadow or sleeping soul of man. Primitive people are often afraid of society, because they know its unpleasant incidents. In most primitive societies, such an act is not socially approved and is therefore considered a crime against society.

21) Witchcraft

22) Witchcraft is a malevolent practice with the help of spirits. Here diseases are done only through thoughts and feelings; Tangible items are not used at all. So when witchcraft works on the person, the person starts suffering but the evidence of witchcraft does not remain. The lack of visual evidence makes it difficult to prove or disprove an allegation. Among the Azande, witchcraft is a part of daily life. Whatever goes wrong – an ache or pain, a bad harvest, an accident, loss of cattle – everything is perceived as a malicious act of a personal enemy.

 

 

23) who has done witchcraft against him. Witchcraft is thus a part and parcel of all economic pursuits, domestic life and community life of the Azande.

24) Witch Doctor

25) The term witch doctor is sometimes used synonymously with shaman and refers specifically to the Negroid shamans of Africa and Melanesia. But in reality the witch doctor is a divine personality who exposes the witch. A man either acquires the skill from his parents or learns from someone else. In some societies, such as the American Indians, witch doctors are known as medicine men.

26) When someone suddenly falls ill, it is understood that a spell has been cast on him. So her friends and relatives try to care, protect and cure her with herbal medicines. But when all efforts go in vain and the symptoms become alarming, there is no way but to call a tantrik who knows how to cure the disease.

 

27) A person practicing witchcraft usually looks terrible because he paints his face and body brightly with clay of different colors. He burns mysterious perfumes around the patient, strange words bubble up; He twists his body and finally heals the patient with his occult power. He knows the medicine of witchcraft. sorceress

28) Exercising supernatural power over others with the help of spirits; Magic. Both the tantrik and the witch are malevolent practitioners. Hence they enjoy very low socio-economic status in all societies. A wizard and a witch can be of any gender and are usually part-timers. They are both feared, as they know how to invoke supernatural power to cause sickness, injury and death.

 

29) Magicians often use different ingredients for their magic, so when evidence of their misconduct is found, they are killed by sectarian retribution. But in the case of witchcraft, due to lack of evidence, actual witches are not always identified.

 

30) It is believed that witches have some bad substance inside their body due to which they harm other people. A magical performance is probably responsible for recognizable changes in the body’s internal organs, which can only be detected by post-mortem examination. Almost all primitive societies have either sorcery doctors or medicine men or shamans to act against the evils created by sorcery and sorcery.

31) Medium

32) Mediums are part-time religious practitioners and are mostly women. them

People are said to heal while in trance. A medium enters a hypnotic state and during that period is controlled by a spiritual force outside of itself. It is believed that different spirits communicate with people through this medium.

33) This process, often referred to as prophecy, can be a channel of connection with the supernatural to receive his guidance. Divination often points to a man the source of his misfortunes. The medium usually receives guidance through an oracle. Primitive people believe that most misfortunes arise from the practice of witchcraft.

 

34) priest

35) Priests are usually full-time male specialists who officiate at public events. They have a very high position in the society. Priesthood is an expression of developed religion. But it can also be found in relatively organized primitive societies where cultures are rich and complex. People respect him because he has the power to reach the Gods and Goddesses.

 

36) Priests are also found to organize and maintain certain permanent cults. A priest may have mana, but this power lies with the position he holds and not directly with him as a shaman. The succession to the office is hereditary. Priests have to work in a rigidly structured hierarchy, fixed in a firm set of tradition. agricultural or pastoral communities that perform politics

37) Integration with the community includes either shaman or witchcraft or medium with priest and shaman.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tribes In India

 

1) ‘ etc. But the word tribe has not been defined anywhere in the Constitution. Article 366(25) of the Constitution states that the Scheduled Tribes are such tribes or tribal communities or parts of such groups of tribes or tribal communities as the President of India may, by public notification under Article 342(1), specify.

 

2) Tribal population is found in almost all parts of the world. India has one of the two largest concentration of tribal population. Tribal communities form an important part of the Indian social structure.

 

3) Tribes are the oldest communities as they are the first to be settled. Tribals are called the original inhabitants of this land. These groups are still in a primitive state and are often referred to as primitive aborigines, tribals or girijans etc. According to the 2011 census, the tribal population in India was 6.7%. India currently has the second largest tribal population in the world after Africa.

4) In the Indian context the word ‘tribe’ is today called ‘Scheduled Tribe’. The Scheduled Tribes are the second largest group of backward classes that comes under the privileged section of the population.

 

5) These communities are considered to be the oldest of the present inhabitants of India. And it is believed that they have survived here for centuries with their unchanged ways of life. Many tribal groups are still in a primitive state and away from the influence of modern civilization

6) The term Scheduled Tribe has been interpreted in various ways.

 

7) For laymen the term suggests the tribals who live in hills and forests, for administrators it means a group of citizens who have certain privileges supported by the constitution, for an anthropologist it refers to a social phenomenon. indicates a particular area for study, Risley v.

 

8) Elwin and others used the term ‘Adivasi’ for the tribals. Sir Bains, a British census officer referred to the tribal community as a ‘hill tribe’. Hutton preferred to use the term ‘primitive tribe’. Mahatma Gandhi popularized the term ‘Girijan’ The Constitution of India has accepted the use of the term ‘Scheduled Tribe’, which was first introduced in 1928 by the Simon Commission. Tribes are also called ‘Vanvasi’, ‘Aranyavasi’, Vanyalati.

 

9)’ etc. But the word tribe has not been defined anywhere in the constitution. Article 366(25) of the Constitution states that the Scheduled Tribes are such tribes or tribal communities or parts of such groups of tribes or tribal communities as the President of India may, by public notification under Article 342(1), specify.

 

 

There are limits to defining tribes anthropologically. André Bete points out the following limitations:

 

1. There is no distinct political boundary, in many instances, the boundaries of different states cut across tribal divisions.
2. The linguistic boundary is also gradually changing.
3. The cultural boundary of the tribe is not clear. There are many elements of continuity with regional cultures. It cannot be considered specific in rigorous ways.
4. The homogenous form of tribal society has almost disappeared. Some elements of stratification have been observed among some tribes, and homogeneity among tribes cannot be described as an exclusive feature of the tribe.

 

 

The distinction between tribals and non-tribals is ambiguous in many ways. And there is no consensus among social scientists regarding the definition of the term tribe. Some definitions are given below:

 

W.J.Perry: ‘a group that speaks a common dialect and resides in a common area’.

Rivers: ‘a social group of simple type, whose members speak common

common objective like welfare

speak and act

Gillin and Gillin: ‘A tribe is a group of local communities living in a common area.

Madan: ‘A conglomerate of simple minds, occupying a concentrated territory, a common language, a common government, a common action in war.’

D.N. Majundar: ‘Tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, the members of which live in the same area, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession or occupation and have a spirit of reciprocity and reciprocity. Well developed evaluation system. Obligation.’

sc Dubey: ‘Tribe is an ethnic category defined by real or imaginary descent and characterized by a wide range of commonly shared traits of a corporate identity and culture.’

 

Speaks a common dialect and follows a common culture.’

 

 

1) From the definitions it can be concluded that a tribe is nothing but a group of families having a common ancestor and descendants. They are related by blood and are closely related to each other. They have a sense of oneness and unity in general.

 

2) They speak a common language and have more or less the same traditions because of a common cultural heritage. They live in groups in a geographical area.

 

3) Tribes are generally a social group consisting of a number of clans, nomadic bands, villages or other subgroups that usually have a definite territorial area, a distinct language and a distinct culture, either a common political organization or at least Less there is a sense of general determination against it. out

4) Ars. Tribes are considered as a group of people living in a particular area, having a distinct identity in their way of life and culture.

 

5) Contrary to what is commonly expected, a tribe can be described as a homogeneous unit, having some common territory and common ancestors. They are isolated from the mainstream and often pre-educated and backward in technology given social and political customs based on kinship. Even though some tribes have changed in their distinctive features, some of them are still relevant.

 

 

 

Properties

Tribes generally reveal certain characteristics:

1. Definite common area: A tribe is a territorial community. This means that the group has a certain

The area in which its members reside.

2. Collection of Families: Tribals form a collection of families. these families have

Blood relations. They can be matrilineal or patriarchal.

3. Common name: Each tribe has its own name. A tribe is known to others by its distinctive name.
4. Common language: The tribals speak a common language within their group. this language

Different from the language of other communities including the surrounding tribes.

5. Common Ancestor: Almost all tribes claim a common ancestor. Their sense of we-feeling develops from a blood relationship through a common ancestor. They are bound by the limits of kinship.
6. Common religion: Tribals generally worship a single ancestor and follow a single religion. Tribal social and political organizations are based on religion, with participation in religious rituals creating group unity.
7. Common Culture: Tribes have their own way of life. They practice a common culture which includes similar customs, traditions, ethics and rituals. The special characteristics of a tribe lead to the development of a distinct culture.
8. General political organization: The head of the community exercises authority. The chiefship is hereditary. They have a tribal council or judicial system.
9. We feel: The members of a tribe feel that they are united. Emotion is essential to maintain and maintain your identity.
10. Endogamy: Tribes generally practice endogamy, marrying within their own group, so that

Maintain the purity of blood.

11. General economic organization: Most of the tribals are agricultural laborers. 57% of them are economically active. Usually their economic condition is very bad.
12. Simplicity and self-reliance – A tribe is simple in its character and operations. They do not have the rights or enjoy the facilities of the modern society.

These are some of the general characteristics of a tribe. Some may have a very different character. But most of the tribes are sharing these common features.

 

 

 

 

 

Clan And Tribe

 

1) Clan is a type of group which forms a part of the kinship system. It has special importance in tribal society. Clan refers to a unilateral kinship group based on either matrilineal or patrilineal descent.

 

2) It is a collection of uniparental families whose members consider themselves to be the common descendants of a real or mythical ancestor. Clan membership is a socially defined term of actual or pure descent from a common ancestor.

 

3) This descent is unilineal and is derived only from the male of the female. This includes all the relatives of the father’s side or the mother’s side.

4) Each tribe consists of smaller kinship units. Some tribes are related to wild animals, trees and plants. Some gotra names are related to Bhuta, the gotra being an exogamous unit. Its members do not marry among themselves. A tribe is largely endogamous.

 

5) The tribe has no fixed language. a tribe in general

She speaks a normal dialect. The clan does not have any fixed geographical area. A tribe occupies a common territory.

 

 

Geographical distribution of tribes

Tribes in India are concentrated in a definite geographical area. About two-thirds of India’s total tribal population is found in the fire states of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, Bihar and Maharashtra. Mizoram, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh have the highest number of tribals in MP, tribals form 70% to 95% of the total population.

tribal area

Tribes in India are not found alone in any one particular area, but are distributed in different states. B.S. Guha has given a three fold regional distribution of tribals.

1) North and North-Eastern region.

2) The central or central region.

 

 

3) Southern Region

CB Mamoriya is included as the fourth territory in this list, which includes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The north and north-eastern region includes the sub-Himalayan region and the hills and mountain ranges of the north-eastern borders of India. The aborigines of the region are mostly Magnolia rare and speak languages belonging to the Tibeto-Chinese family. This region is inhabited by tribes like Gerung, Limbo, Khasi, Garo, Naga, Mikir etc. It is estimated that about 13% of the tribes in India are found in this region.

The tribes of the central region are scattered all over the mountain-

The belt between the rivers Narmada and Godavari. It includes parts of West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat, MP, Maharashtra, Jharkhand and UP. The main tribes of this region are Gond, Munda, Baiga, Bhil, Santhal, Juong etc. 80 percent of the tribal population resides in this area.

 

 

The southern region comes under the Krishna river. It includes AP, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and two Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. The tribes of this region are considered to be the oldest inhabitants in India. Tribes like Kota, Kurumba, Kadar, Paniyan etc. are included in this region.

 

This region accounts for about 6-5% of the total tribal population. The main tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands are Jarawas, Nicobarese and Andamanese.

Based on cultural factors and cultural contacts, Ghurye classifies the Indian tribes into three categories. First, the groups were recognized as members of fairly high status within Hindu society; second, the vast majority of the population which have been partially Hinduised and come into close contact with the Hindus; and third the hill tribes, who have demonstrated the power of resistance to foreign cultures pressing on their frontiers.

other characteristics

The tribal population in India speaks many languages and dialects. These languages can be broadly classified into three categories:

1) Dravidians (South Indian tribes).

2) Austrics (Central Indian tribes)

3) Tibeto-Chinese (Himalayan region)

Economic characteristics are considered for the following classifications:

1) Food gatherers and hunters

2) Shepherds and cattle feeding

3) shifting cultivators

4) settled farmers

5) laborers and workers

Cultural features help to divide tribes into four groups:

1) Those who live in post primitive stage

2) who lead a community life and share a common culture

3) Those who are isolated from the mainstream communities.

Tribes in the second and third groups have more or less contact with outsiders. They tried to maintain their social and cultural identity.

Ethnic classification of tribes in India is done as follows:

1) Mangaloid (Naga, Chakma, Botia etc.)

2) Proto-Australoids (Gonds, Mundas, Orans, Khonds etc.)

3) Negroids (Jarawa, Kadar, Andamanese, Nicobarese etc.)

4) Nordic (Slightly)

 

 

Tribals in other societies

Tribals generally stay away from civilized life. Usually they live in remote areas like forests, mountains, dense valleys etc. Today most of them have come in contact with advanced communities. They have borrowed many cultural traits from outsiders.

The tribes came in contact with the advanced people in various ways. DN Majumdar suggests the following methods of contact:

1) Industrialization in the neighboring region forced them to migrate and mix with outsiders.

2) Vendors and traders offered many products to outsiders. This contact gradually changed.

3) The administrative authorities made significant changes including new facilities.

4) Christian missionaries also spread the religion influenced by measures of education and health.

5) The tremendous development of transport and communication has made an impact in many ways.

6) Tribes displaced due to war, or developmental programs have come in contact with others and been affected.

Contact with other communities has brought about a series of changes. Most of the tribes have come under the influence of the caste system. The conversion and Hinduisation brought some social mobility to their social structure, but it never helped in their overall upliftment. Tribal food, ceremonies, festivals and dances have been replaced by cultural practices introduced by outsiders. The education system that has been introduced in the tribal area is mostly unsuited to the tribal way of life. Tribal customs and practices are often interspersed with complex systems of law and legal process. outsiders

The occurrence of disease through contact, including venereal diseases and alcoholism, has affected the safety of tribal life. Available medical assistance is very insignificant with the situation.

Thus the tribals’ contact with civilization has made them somewhat positive.

Change. It has also given rise to new problems and challenges.

tribal problems

The tribes in India are affected by many factors and are facing many problems. Many of these problems arise for the following reasons:

1) Exploitation by outsiders

2) Contact and influence from outsiders

3) British and Indian policies of administration

4) Missionary intervention

5) Due to unscientific programs implemented.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Indian tribe

 

– According to the 2001 census, the tribal or tribal population in India is 8 crore 43 lakhs, which is 8 of the total population of the country. is 3%. These about 424 tribes, mainly in three regions Central India, Ajri-East India and South India, have got a lot of variation in personality, vision, thinking and group style. For example, the five largest tribes of India such as Bhil. The population of Gand Rtha Mana is above five million while the population of the smallest tribe, Und Maniya, is just over a thousand. Big tribes are increasing at the rate of normal growth but Ho, Kamar, hills etc. are decreasing. Just complete The tribal community itself is in trouble. This crisis is basically a crisis of infection. The reason for transition and change is the question of integrating tribes into the Indian society and culture. The basic problem of tribes in the Indian context is the problem of integration. The definition of tribe in India is difficult because due to change and adjustment many tribes have been entering the caste system. It becomes difficult to separate these tribes from the castes. Despite this difficulty, D. N. Mazumdar has given a definition of tribe. According to them, a tribe is a social group that is attached to a particular area, that marries within its own group, that does not have division of labor other than sex, division of labor, division of labor between men and women, Administered by hereditary or other types of tribal chieftains, each group has a distinct dialect, maintains a distance from other tribes and castes, adheres to tribal customs and practices, is susceptible to outside ideas . For example Santhal, Gond, Dodhiya, Chenchu, Naga etc. are group tribes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tribal Problems

 

As we said earlier, the problem of tribes is the problem of their integration from the point of view of the Indian nation. Tribals face difficulty in integration due to their tribal identity, tribal sensibility and separate independent spirit. So integration is exacerbated by other problems: These other problems have arisen due to the effect of British rule in the tribe, contact of tribes with other Indians, government policies etc. like

 

The problem of land loss – Tribals or tribes are seriously attached to their land. A land is more intimately related to them than land property. The tribes which are nomadic or live in chunghat like- Chench, Sijo, Bipura etc. also roam in a limited area and the area in which they roam. There is a special relationship between the trees, animals and land resources of that area. The tribals did not have the problem of land grab before, but in spite of this they did not like others to live in their area, buy land from others, etc. According to the statistics of 2001, most of the tribes do agriculture. In the last two hundred years, the land of the tribals is being snatched from them. In Gujarat, when Gujarat Vidyapith studied two areas of Banaskot district in this context, it was found that 50% of the land was snatched from the hands of tribals. Similar studies were also done in Madhya Pradesh and Manipur and their conclusions were similar. B. A . Rath has said that the problem of land-grabbing is not so serious in India. Reasons for land loss – Tribals’ land was snatched away from them due to many reasons, mediums and methods.

 

(1) The most important reason for land loss has been the greed of non-tribal agricultural groups towards land. In tribal areas, by persuading the tribals, they get their land registered in their name.

(2) Moneylenders and traders also snatch the land of tribals by giving them loans by keeping them on mortgage and taking land in exchange for goods. After the control of the tribal areas by the British, this work happened very fast. Often the tribals were against these merchant moneylenders more than the British, who were very autocratic in the matter of grabbing. In the 19th century in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Bombay etc. tribal revolts took place due to this.

(3) The indifference and dynastic attitude of the government officials has also deprived the tribals of the land. When the tribals complain against the usurpation of their land, no action is taken and they themselves grab the land.

(4) Due to development programmes, construction of dams, construction of tomorrow-factories, tribals have to leave their land. It falls D . Of . Ramvarman said that tribals have always been victims of development programmes. Ale . P . According to the student, due to the establishment of heavy industry in Ranchi, the tribals had to bear the pain of displacement. satyadev the

According to the province, the development programs in North-East India have also harmed them.

(5) The new rich farmers and businessmen have driven out the tribal farmers from their land. Muslim traders have encroached upon Tharu farmers in the state, and tribal lands have been encroached upon by Andhra ethnic farmers in Champaran, Bihar. According to Kumar Suresh Singh, land grabbing is the most serious problem of the tribals. In most of the cases, it is for this reason that dissatisfaction has developed among the tribals. The reforms made by the government in the land and revenue law due to this have also not benefited.

 

Indebtedness: Another problem faced by tribals related to land acquisition is indebtedness. In general, the problem of indebtedness has increased due to integration with the modern economy. Tribals take loan mainly for drinking Harab and due to the mistake of moneylenders. The problem of indebtedness also increases due to illiteracy and ignorance of the tribals. Moneylenders mostly write off the excess amount as debt. Liquor contractors and their brokers also tempt them by giving them liquor at low prices.

 

Deforestation – Tribal communities consider their traditional rights over forests. His relationship with the forest has been very close. Since independence, due to government acquisition of forests, handing over of forests to contractors and due to adoption of trade of forest produce like mango, safflower, karanj, tendupatta etc. by the government, the economic condition of the tribes has become very pathetic.

 

Addiction to drinking – Alcoholic drinks are an essential part of the life of the tribals. Before the arrival of the British, they themselves used to make and drink it. Handiya in Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Pong in Assam, J in Nagaland, Mizoram, Ladki in Andhra in Himachal Pradesh are such intoxicating drinks. During the British era, liquor contractors were allowed to enter here, which attracted the tribals. Anyway, there are three times more country liquor shops in the tribal areas than in the rest of the areas. Sociologists have studied this problem in detail. After studying Bastar district, Grogayan said that their economy has collapsed due to this. Nirmal Kumar Bose has called liquor contractors as agents of exploitation. K . Ale . According to Sharma, the addiction to drinking is increased by the contractors, they give liquor in Dhar, arrange to sell liquor in fairs. That’s why Jhar Fatah. That’s why the leaders of the Jharkhand movement had made this problem of selling Hadiya instead of country liquor a part of the movement. Many places were made a mystery. KGB has been closed at many places, yet it has not ended.

 

Unstable farming practice – many tribes Khata Khata practice – many tribes Unstable system of farming i.e. going to a place and clearing the bushes there, burning them and scattering the ashes, burning them and scattering the ashes and then sprinkling the hawks after minor digging Let’s move the mountain of giving. For example Chench, Bijo Koi etc. Sir – In East India it is called Pidu. The Government of India had banned this backward technique of farming by making a law in 1954.

 

On the request of Warrior Albin, it was not allowed to live in certain areas, but it was allowed to live in certain areas. It is true that the yield in it would have been less. But changing it immediately has proved fatal. Let the truth be changed, it has proved fatal. Isri and M. Tea . Chaturvedi J. P . Silch etc. said. That unsustainable farming is not the problem. Rather, it is not a complement to the tribals, rather it is an uncle of the tribals. It needs to be improved. The tribes like Bharia, Laiga etc. have clearly stated that the general public has clearly stated that they do not have the power to buy the equipments required for normal farming. they can only do unstable agriculture

 

The problem of education among tribals- Tribals, to a large extent, this problem is cultural. Tribals oppose modern education because tribals can forget their culture and tribal community by it. Because dominance can end. In the north-east of India, the Christian Missionaries propagated English education. The problem of education among tribals is related to their economic condition. L: RN. Shrivastava himself. After study said that due to economic poverty tribals do not pass on to their children. B. D . Shami said that the present education system has been made keeping in mind the urban middle class. It is not tribal friendly. Y. Sen also did not find it favorable to the tribals. s . N. According to Hathe, tribal education. Sufficient resources have not been mobilized for this. Among them, the percentage of literacy is very low and among the dropouts, tribals are second only to women.

 

Health problem – It is a common belief that the health of tribals is very bad. Many of these people have been suffering from fatal diseases for a long time. They don’t have the right attitude towards health and they don’t get many facilities even if they want to. Their life expectancy is about 20 years less than that of other Indians. You . N. Dhebar said that despite government arrangements, problems have increased due to lack of proper measures, lack of trained people, lack of communication and non-supply of medicines.

 

Lack of communication – Tribal areas are remote and inaccessible areas. Because of this, convenience, knowledge and prosperity do not reach them whenever the British or the Indian rulers

When there was a need to extract minerals, wood or other products from these areas, means of transport were developed. On the contrary, due to the development of means of transport in tribal areas, their exploitation has increased further. N. N. According to Rath, the facilities of transport have further increased the exploitation of tribals. In his opinion, the entry of other people into the tribal areas has to be controlled. V . D . According to Sharma, it would be wrong to reduce the facilities of traffic due to the fear of exploitation. Transport facilities pave the way for development.

 

Tribal specific group – As a result of development, social inequality and weaponization have developed among tribals. Along with this a small but distinct group has developed among them. It is equipped with educational facilities and other facilities. This leadership is more engaged in its resources than the development of ordinary tribals. a . According to Satchidananda, this leadership ignores government facilities and assistance. A . R . According to Kamath, due to this special group, the problems of tribals increase. The problem of tribals is basically that of integration in the Indian society. This problem became more serious than other problems. The problems have created chaos in the tribes due to which the tribals are born defeated. Most of these movements have been done or are being done by the expectedly developed tribes. Till now the tribal community of India is a backward and dissatisfied community. ,

 

Special features of Indian tribes – Tribal population is spread all over the world but the tribals of India are different from other tribals of the world in many respects. V . Of . Rai Varman’s statement is also correct that even the tribals of India are not similar to each other but have serious economic differences. Despite this, Indian sociologists and anthropologists like T.M. Arupayan etc. have discussed special symptoms in relation to them.

 

(1) The economic characteristics of the tribals in India are different in the sense that most of the people in the 2001 census He called himself a farmer. But it is a fact that although none of these do the same thing, but most of the people either hunt, collect tubers, like Birhor. Some people do animal husbandry, in which toys are the most prominent. Some people survive on crafts like badga, apatani etc. Some people live in only one place, but they get farming done everywhere. Like – Kamar, Baiga etc. Many large tribes have now taken to settled agriculture and as a result Santhals, Mundas, Bhils, Tharu have emerged as some of the advanced farmers. According to Majumdar, no tribe in India is engaged in fishing and none of these tribes of Andaman do any single economic activity. Before the arrival of the British, currency was not prevalent in them and they used to do division of labor between men and women.

(2) From the point of view of political organization, although now all tribes are under Indian administration, but still many tribes run their own administration and they are administered by chieftains or chiefs or heroes. Some tribes of Andaman are still not ready to join the Indian administration. According to Andre Bete, before the unification of India, each tribe was a political system in itself and each tribe had its own political boundaries. ,

(3) From the point of view of social organization, total kinship youth organization etc. is very important in Indian tribes. As a result of this, although youth organizations have become very weak, but still they are present here and there, which are the most strange from the point of view of social structure and are also very important.

(4) In the field of non-material culture, they follow the practices and primary rules. Public opinion is very important here. There is neither a separate organization nor a separate form for following the religion they believe in. In the tribal society, magic is not only respected but it can be performed very regularly. They use magic for almost all their works.

(5) From the point of view of Bhapa, there was no script in the Indian tribes earlier. In the last few decades the Santhals Aulchiki script has been developed and Gond people have developed Gondi script. But the dialects of all the tribes are different from each other, on the basis of their character they are divided into four divisions. One is called Indo-Tibetan which is spoken by tribes like Bhautia, Riyam etc. Second is Indo-Chinese which is spoken by Mikir, Bodo, Kiang Long etc. The third is Indo-Siamese which is spoken by the Apatani and the Karam people of India. Fourth is the Austric dialect group which is spoken by most of the tribes of India like Santhal, Ho, Bhil, Bali etc. The tribes of South India basically speak the dialects of the Dravidian group. Like – Kakamba, Todd, Badaga Malapathnam etc. From the racial point of view, although there is some controversy among anthropologists, but B. s . After studying the cavity, some clarity has come in this. According to him, there are people of the Negro race in India and others have proved that most of the tribes of the Andaman Islands are of the same race as well as some other tribes of South India also have a similar practice. The second ethnic group is that of Proto-Stalvaites which are the tribes of Central India, such as Santhal, Munda etc. mongolian race

Left in two parts. One is called Palaeomagolchayte, which is the species of the tribes of strata eastern India and the other is called Tivetomongolchayd, which is called Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Palaiyad, which is the species of most of the tribes of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim. These characteristics have been given only in the form of broad criteria and it is certain that if we go into detail, we will find more differences than that. Like other groups and communities, tribal communities are also subject to changes. Due to their poor condition and backwardness, though the changes in them have Indian character, but in them too, the traditional Har Sevan is becoming more and more and the modern changes are decreasing. The population of North-East India is most developed in Undh Manala. The tribes of South India and Andaman Deep group are still the most backward from Gaikvasht.

 

What steps have been taken by the state and central government for tribal welfare?

 

About 8 of the total population in India. 2% and 0 of the entire population in Bihar. 91% Tribal In 4001 there were approximately 84, 326, 000 Indian tribals. These tribes are facing different types of problems. Due to urbanization and industrialization, expansion of Hinduism and Christianity and contact with geographical environment and outside culture, these tribes are passing through the transition phase and they are facing various socio-political problems. Government, masses, social reformers and anthropologists are all aware of them and are trying to solve these problems by identifying them.

Majumdar and Madan say that the problems of tribes can be kept in two categories. Firstly, there are those problems which are related only to the tribals. ,

According to Dhuriye, we can keep the problems of the tribe in three categories.

1. Problems of tribes which have got place in Hindu society like, Rajgond etc.

2 . The problem of wool castes on whom the mental influence of Hindus is increasing.

3. Such tribes which are different from these influences and oppose the change. For the social welfare of the tribals, the government and administration have started various welfare programs at the central and state level. Before independence, there was a policy of Isolation or Separation in the British rule. Therefore, special attention was not given to the welfare of the tribals, rather efforts were made to establish political dominance over them. Against which the tribals also revolted but they were crushed mercilessly. After independence, a secular welfare state was established and the Indian government started special schemes for the welfare of tribes and other weaker sections. There are many types of provisions for the welfare and place of tribes in the constitution.

First of all, a schedule of tribes has been prepared all over India. In which about 212 tribes are included and for the protection of their interests and general welfare they have been provided with many rights and facilities.

Article 342 of the Constitution provides for the organization of an Advisory Council, which prepares various schemes for tribal welfare, and for this, there is a provision for the appointment of a special officer, the Commissioner for Scheduled Tribes, and other assistant officers.

According to Article 16 (a) and Article 35 of the Constitution, there is a system of reservation for tribals in public and government jobs. According to the schedule of Article 244 (2), there is a provision for the establishment of Autonomous Distinct and Autonomous Areas for the administrator in the tribal areas, which will have District Committees and Central Committees.

Apart from this, according to section 46 of the fourth part of the constitution, special facilities have been provided for the advancement of education and improvement in the economic life of the Scheduled Tribes.

In the sixth part of the constitution, keeping in mind the problems of tribals, it was ordered to create Tribal Welfare Ministry in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, which will look after tribal welfare at the state level. After the division of Jharkhand, there has been talk of abolishing the Ministry of tribal welfare from Bihar.

According to Indian Constitution Article 23, it is illegal to force a person to work and Article 27 provides for the protection of minority culture. These streams can also be considered very important from the point of view of tribal welfare and this can also bring changes in its political, social, economic etc. conditions.

In addition to the facilities not included in the constitution itself, several schemes have been implemented by the government for the all-round development of the Scheduled Tribes in India. In order to bring political awareness among the tribals and to make them a participant in the national mainstream, some seats in the Lok Sabha and Vidhansabha are reserved for the tribals only.

About 30 seats for the Lok Sabha and 265 seats for the Legislative Assemblies are reserved for the Scheduled Tribes. At the local level too, seats have been reserved for them in Regional Councils, Local Boards and Gramin Panchayats.

Efforts have been made to allocate specific funds for tribal welfare in various five year plans. Various committees and commissions have been established during these plans. In which various aspects of the problems of the tribals have been clearly sung and definite and correct steps can be taken to solve them. Land transfer, bonded labor, loans in the fifth five-year plans

Access, supply of essential commodities and sale of land and forest produce were accepted as central problems to the tribals.

Tribal blocks were also opened in various tribal areas of undivided Bihar under the Community Development Scheme. Under this, many tribes of Choyanagpur were benefitted.

Along with this, various organizations were established in tribal areas with the help of Ministry of Home Affairs and Ministry of Community Development. Which had to implement welfare schemes related to many types of problems like agriculture, irrigation, indebtedness, house construction etc.

In the field of education too, many schemes have been implemented by the government, including opening of new schools for tribals, making education free, naming them in various schools and colleges and arranging hostels, etc. Important works have also been done by other organizations in this field.

The problems of tribals are mainly of economic nature. Efforts have been made by the government in this field. Firstly, there is a system of reservation for them in various jobs. Keeping in mind the land related problems among the tribals, the government has implemented many such legislations, which are solving their problems. A lot of relief has been provided to the tribals of Chhotanagpur by banning the sale of land in tribal areas. This Act is called Tenancy Act.

Another major problem of tribals is related to indebtedness. For this, the government has given special attention in the five year plans. Land, seeds and other types of facilities have been provided to the landless farmers in different five year plan periods. Along with this, arrangements have also been made to survey these things so that these schemes can be fully implemented. The major problem of some tribes is related to shifting agriculture. Several measures have been taken in the Five Year Plans for their rehabilitation and sustainable agriculture. For example, Pilot farms and Agricultural demonstration units have been opened in Andhra Pradesh.

Special emphasis was laid on land reforms and introduction of cash crops in Assam, distribution of funds for agricultural implements and seeds etc. and rehabilitation schemes, land control schemes and development of settlements in Orissa and Tripura. With this in view, suitable arrangements for improvement of barren land and irrigation have been provided in various areas. Arrangements have also been made for the development and training centers of cottage industries.

Different types of co-operative societies in tribal areas like – Mazdoor Samiti, marketing. consumer ‘, co-oprative, labor co-oprative etc. have been established. In this way, the schemes of the Indian government are being brought among the Indian tribes through proper channels.

Keeping in mind the home problems and health problems of the tribals, the Indian government has cheated the schemes. Housing schemes have been implemented for the development of tribals. For Paharia, Kalra, Birhor etc., government housing was provided to them under the Gah Awas Yojana by the government. Along with this, some financial assistance has also been provided to them to build a house. In the field of health too, the government has launched several schemes for the welfare of the tribals, including free medical treatment, vaccination, vaccination and appointment of doctors in tribal areas. Due to the efforts of the government, the Toy tribe has been saved from destruction. In short, the Government of India has implemented various schemes for the welfare of tribals. ,

 

Prof. A. R. Desai has presented the main efforts in the following form. ,

1 Establishment of Multi Purpose Blocks for Tribal Development.

2 . Development and training of cottage and rural industries, opening of production centers for their employment. and providing grants. ,

3. Construction of settlements for tribals especially for nomadic and shifty cultivators. Implementation of rehabilitation plan. ,
4. Providing educational facilities and scholarships etc.
5. Reservation in jobs etc.
6. Restriction on taking arbitrary interest on moneylenders for the diagnosis of indebtedness.
7. Establishment of Tribal culture institution to influence cultural life.
8. Implementation of various types of health related schemes.
9. Tribal welfare institute and formation of different types of committees etc. to implement and evaluate these schemes. , In this way, at present, the Indian government has made every possible effort for the welfare of the tribes. going . Because of which their social and economic life is improving and the tribes are also accepting those changes and plans. One of the effects of these schemes is that the social distance between the tribal and non-tribal population is reducing and they are in the National Mallyadhara. is joining. This process of equalization will prove beneficial for both the tribes and the nation. It is expected so.

 

Problems of scheduled castes and tribes, constitutional arrangements and welfare schemes

PROBLEMS , CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS AND WELFARE SCHEMES FOR SCHEDULED CASTES AND SCHEDULED TRIBES ]

 

 

Generally Scheduled Castes are also called untouchable castes. Untouchability is that system of society, due to which one society cannot touch another society on the basis of tradition, if it touches itself, it

He becomes impure and to get rid of this impurity he has to do some kind of atonement. Therefore, they have been defined on the basis of untouchability. Generally, the meaning of Scheduled Castes is applied to those castes which have been mentioned in the Schedule of the Constitution for providing religious, social, economic and political facilities. They are also called by the names of untouchable castes, Dalits, outer castes and Harijans, etc. The Scheduled Castes have been defined on the basis of castes that earn their livelihood by abominable professions, but this is not a universally accepted basis for determining untouchability. Untouchability is mainly related to the concept of purity and impurity. In the Hindu society, some professions or works have been considered holy and some unholy. Here the substances coming out of human or animal-bird body are considered unholy. In such a situation, the castes engaged in business related to these substances were considered impure and were called untouchables. Untouchability is such a system of society, under which people of castes considered untouchable cannot touch upper caste Hindus. Untouchability means ‘that which is not to be touched’. Untouchability is a belief according to which a person becomes impure just by touching, seeing or casting a shadow on another person. In order to save the upper caste Hindus from being impure, separate arrangements were made for the residence of untouchables, many disabilities were imposed on them and many measures were taken to avoid contact with them. Untouchables come under those caste groups whose touch makes others impure and who have to perform some special rites to become pure again. In this regard

 

Doctor . Of . N. Sharma has written, “Untouchable castes are those whose touch makes a person impure and he has to perform some act to become pure. R. N. Saxena has written about this that if such people are considered untouchable Hindus have to purify themselves by touching, then according to an example of Hutton, Brahmins will also have to be considered untouchables because in South India, the people of Holiya caste do not allow Brahmins to pass through their village and if they are recognized, they Purifies the village.

 

Keeping in mind the above difficulties, Hutton has mentioned some such disabilities on the basis of which efforts have been made to determine the untouchable castes. You have considered untouchables those people who are (a) unfit to receive the service of Brahmins of high status, (b) unfit to receive the service of barbers, kahars and tailors who serve caste Hindus, (c) in Hindu temples be ineligible to obtain admission, (d) be ineligible to use public facilities (schools, roads and wells), and (e) be ineligible to disassociate from the mathematical profession. There is no uniformity in the treatment of untouchables throughout the country, nor is there uniformity in the social status of untouchables in different parts of the country. Therefore, the above grounds given by Hutton are also not final.

 

 

Doctor . D . N. According to Majumdar, “Untouchable castes are those who suffer from various social and political disabilities, many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially enforced by the upper castes. It is clear that there are many disabilities or problems associated with untouchability which have been mentioned hereinafter.

 

Ramgopal Singh says that “the attitude of untouchability is not related to caste, but to traditional hatred and backwardness.” That is why D. N. In the words of Majumdar, “Untouchable castes are those who suffer from various social and political disabilities, most of which are prescribed by tradition and enforced by the socially higher castes.

 

“According to Kailash Nath Sharma, “Untouchable castes are those whose touch makes a person impure and he has to perform some act to become pure.” It is clear that untouchability is related to the general disabilities of the people of the lower castes of the society, due to which these The castes are considered impure and have to make atonement when they are touched by the upper and touchable castes. Although, after the attainment of independence, accepting untouchability as a social crime, the feeling of untouchability has been banned and in this regard the ‘Untouchability-Prevention Act-1955’ has been implemented.

 

 

 

 

 

 

PROBLEMS OR DISABILITIES OF SCHEDULED CASTES

 

 

Religious Disabilities – Restrictions on temple entry and use of holy places Untouchables were considered unholy and many disabilities were imposed on them. These people were denied the right to enter temples, use holy river ghats, visit holy places and worship deities at their own homes. They were not allowed to study and listen to Vedas or other religious texts. They were also not allowed to burn the dead bodies of their relatives at the public crematorium.

Deprived of religious pleasures – Untouchables were deprived of all kinds of religious facilities. Even the caste Hindus were ordered to practice their religious

Keep the untouchables separate from life. It has been told in Manusmriti that no opinion of any kind should be given to the untouchable, nor should he be given the remaining part of the food, nor should he get the prasad of Devbhog, nor should the sacred law be explained to him, nor should he But the burden of atonement should be put on penance. , , , He, who interprets sacred law to anyone (untouchable) or compels him to do penance or atonement, will himself be drowned with him (untouchable) in the hell called Asamvrut. Untouchables have not been given the right to worship, worship, Bhagwat Bhajan, Kirtan, etc. Brahmins have not been allowed to conduct worship, Shraddha and Yagya, etc. at their place.

 

Restrictions on the performance of religious rites – The untouchables have been considered impure since birth and for this reason there is no provision for rites for their purification. Sixteen major rites in religious texts for purification

mention is found. Untouchables have not been given the right to fulfill most of these. They have not been allowed to perform major rites like Vidyarambh, Upanayan and Chudakaran.

 

Social Disabilities Untouchables have had many social disabilities, the main ones are as follows:

 

Prohibition on social contact Untouchables were not allowed to have social contact with upper caste Hindus and to participate in their conferences, seminars, panchayats, festivals and ceremonies. They have been debarred from eating and drinking with the upper caste Hindus. Even the shadow of untouchables was considered impure and they were not allowed to use public places. The Untouchables had to do all their work in the night due to the fear that the upper caste Hindus would get impure just by their sight. In many places in South India, they were not even given the right to walk on the streets. It has been told in Manusmriti that Chandalas or Untouchables should marry and associate only with their equals and they should not be given the right to roam in the village or town at night.

 

Restrictions on the use of public goods – Untouchables were not allowed to draw water from wells used by other Hindus, study in schools and stay in hostels. These people were not allowed to use the things used by the upper castes. They could not use brass and bronze utensils, could not wear nice clothes and gold ornaments. Shopkeepers don’t give them food, washermen don’t wash their clothes, barbers don’t cut their hair and kahar doesn’t fill water. They were not even allowed to live in the colony or locality of other upper caste Hindus. It has been told in religious texts that the residence of Chandalas and Shvapakas will be outside the village, they will be ineligible and only dogs and mules will be their wealth. In this regard, it has been said in Manusmriti that the clothes of a dead person or old rags should be their clothes, broken pieces of clay should be their utensils, these people should keep roaming around day and night. Not only the untouchables, but even the Shudras, who were deprived of public facilities, were not allowed to get education, constitutional arrangements and welfare schemes 425 – 17. They were not given the right to entertain themselves by attending chaupals, fairs and haats. The result was that a large section of the society remained illiterate.

 

Hierarchy even within the untouchables – One surprising thing is that the system of stratification i.e. discrimination between high and low is found even among the untouchables themselves. These people are divided into more than three hundred high and low caste groups, each of which has a higher or lower status than the other. In this regard K. M . Panikkar says that “the strange thing is that within the untouchables themselves there was a separate caste-like organization. . . . Like the Savarna Hindus, they also had a stratification of sub-castes of very high and low status, one superior to the other.” claimed to be.

 

Untouchables as a separate society Untouchables as a separate society have had to suffer from many disabilities. About this Dr. Panikkar writes, “When the caste-system was functional in its youth, the condition of these untouchables (fifth varna) was worse than slavery in many respects. There was a personal relationship with the master, but the family of untouchables was burdened with the servitude of the whole village. Instead of keeping individuals as slaves, some untouchable families were associated with each village in a form of collective slavery.’ No person belonging to the ‘higher’ castes could have personal relations with any untouchable.”

 

Economic Disabilities Untouchables were assigned all those works which were not done by the upper caste Hindus. Due to economic disabilities, the economic condition of the untouchables became so pathetic that they were forced to fulfill their needs only by consuming fake food, torn-old clothes and discarded items of the upper castes. His economic disabilities are as follows:

 

Occupational Disability – The Untouchables were assigned the work of scavenging, cleaning, lifting dead animals and making articles from their skin. To cultivate them And

The right to run a business or get a job after getting education was not given. These people mostly work as “landless” laborers in the villages. These disabilities

It was imposed that they cannot adopt any other profession except their traditional profession.

 

Property related disability – Apart from occupational disability, he also had to suffer from property related disability. They were not allowed to collect land rights and wealth. The Manusmriti states, “An untouchable should never accumulate wealth, even if he is able to do so, because a Shudra who accumulates wealth hurts the Brahmins. Elsewhere it has also been told that a Brahmin can confiscate the property of his Shudra servant at will because he has no right to keep the property. The untouchables had to serve their masters as slaves, no matter how little they were given in return. Acharya Vinoba Bhave started the ‘Bhoodan’ movement for the untouchables, moved by their property-related disqualification.

 

There is no facility to eat enough food (economic exploitation) Untouchables have been exploited economically. They were forced to take up the most heinous occupations and in return were not given enough food to eat. In return for their important services, the society gave them leftover junk food, discarded items and torn clothes. The Hindus justified all their behavior in the name of religion and forced the untouchables to be satisfied with this system. He was told that if he did not perform his duties properly in this life, the next life would be of even lower quality. Thus the untouchables had to be subjected to economic exploitation.

 

Political Disabilities Untouchables have been deprived of all kinds of rights in the field of politics. They were not given any right to interfere in the work of governance, to give any suggestions, to get jobs for public services or to get political protection. Untouchables could be humiliated and even beaten by anyone. They were not protected against such practices. for them . There was a system of harsh punishment even for ordinary crimes. There is a clear mention of the discriminatory policy of punishment in Manusmriti. _ _ _ _ It has been said in this book that where Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were made to take oath in the name of Satya, Shastra and Gau respectively, before giving justice to untouchables. Only as an oath, arrangements were made to walk seven steps with eight fingers long and wide hot iron in hand. The harshness of the standard can be seen from the fact that Manu has told that the part of a person of lower caste (Shudra or untouchable) with which he hurts the people of higher caste, that part will be amputated. , , , , , , , , Whoever raises his hand or stick, his hand will be cut off. It is clear that the Untouchables have had many political disabilities. The above mentioned disabilities of untouchables are specially related to the medieval social system.

 

At present the problem of untouchables is mainly social and economic and not religious and political. Deprived of all kinds of rights for such a long time, being illiterate and lacking consciousness, it will take some time to improve their condition. People’s attitude towards them will gradually change and in course of time they will be able to flow in the main stream of social life. The disabilities of the untouchables are disappearing in the cities, but today they are visible in the villages. The main reason for this is that the pace of social change in rural areas is slow, conservatism still prevails there.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

problems of scheduled tribes

(PROBLEMS OF SCHEDULED TRIBES)

 

Unapproachable Habitation – A Problem Almost all tribes live in hilly areas, forests, swamps and places where there is a lack of roads and the current means of transport and communication are not yet available there. . As a result, it has become a difficult task to contact them. This is the reason why they are still unfamiliar with the sweet fruits of scientific inventions and their economic, educational, health and political problems have not been resolved. They are also unfamiliar with other cultures. As a result, they have developed their own specific way of life which lacks comprehensiveness. The problem of communication has arisen due to the remote residence. The facilities of road, post office, telegraph, telephone, newspaper, radio and cinema have not reached these areas, hence their Modernization has not happened and there has been an obstacle in getting tied in the thread of unity with the country.

 

Problem of Cultural Contact Due to geographically inaccessible place of residence of the tribals, they could not get in touch with the modern culture and they are very backward in the race of present progress. On the other hand, some tribal cultures had contact with outside cultures. This excessive contact has also created many problems. Many reasons are responsible for giving rise to the problems of cultural contact among the tribals. new culture

The contact of aunts made the innocent tribals their own. attracted . But the difference between primitive and new cultures is that they could not adapt to the new. Outside selfish groups like traders, contractors and usurers have settled among these people and given birth to new family tensions, economic problems and physical diseases among them. The new administration brought them in contact with police officers, administration and forest officials, etc., who have looked at the tribals with an inferiority complex instead of showing them sympathy. At present, many new industries, mines and tea gardens have started functioning at the places where tribal people used to reside. As a result, he came in contact with the new industrial and urban culture, but he was unable to adapt to this newness. As a result new cultural problems were born. The Christian missionaries did their work of propagating religion in the name of service and took advantage of the ignorance and illiteracy of the tribals. Due to the influence of Christian missionaries, many tribals abandoned their culture and adopted western culture. They started using English dress, drugs, new means of cosmetics like powder, lipstick, perfume, oil, etc. and abandoned their customs, practices, youth-houses and their ancient fine arts began to decline. Tribal law and justice have been replaced by new law and justice which do not match with their traditional values. Hindus are among the foreign cultural groups who came in contact with the tribals. Due to contact with Hindus, the practice of child marriage flourished among these people and the problem of language was born. In this way many problems arose due to contact of tribals with external cultural groups such as land system problem, forest problem, economic exploitation and indebtedness, problem of industrial workers, child marriage, prostitution and venereal disease, language problem, tribal fine arts. degradation, the problem of food and clothing and the problem of education and religion, etc-etc.

 

Economic Problems Due to the current cultural contact and new government policy, the tribal people are facing economic problems. Due to the new policy of the government related to land, forests were forbidden to be cut, hunting and liquor making were also banned in many areas, due to which the Kaga tribals had to adopt new ways instead of traditional ways of living. They were prohibited from cutting wood from forests, doing shifting cultivation and getting other things. They were forced to leave their native places and go to work in tea gardens, mines and factories. Now they started working as landless agricultural laborers and industrial workers. Taking advantage of the helplessness of these people, the contractors and industrialists started taking more work from them at less wages. The living and working conditions of these people are also deplorable. In this way they have been economically exploited. Earlier barter was prevalent in the economy of these people, now they got acquainted with money economy. Traders, drug peddlers and usurers took advantage of this and duped the innocent tribals. They have become indebted and have either sold or mortgaged their agricultural land to moneylenders. Some of the tribes engaged in agriculture do shifting agriculture. They first set fire to the forests and then work on that land. After a few days, that land becomes uncultivable, then leaving it, they do agriculture in the same way at another place. The result of this is that soil erosion increases, valuable wood in the forests gets burnt and the yield also decreases. The economic problem of the tribes is related to the agricultural problem. Due to living in hilly areas, they lack cultivable land. Not only this, they also lack advanced animals, seeds, tools and capital, so agriculture is not very profitable for them.

 

Social Problems Due to the contact between urban and civilized societies, many social problems have also arisen among the tribals. Earlier these people used to get married at a young age, but now child marriages are taking place which is the result of contact with Hindus. Due to the entry of money economy, now the bride price is also being taken in them. The people of the civilized society look at the child youth homes prevalent in the tribes with an inferiority complex. Youth-home was the center of entertainment, social training, means of fulfillment of economic interests and education among the tribals, but now this institution is coming to an end, as a result of which there have been many harmful effects. Taking advantage of the poverty of tribals, contractors, moneylenders, businessmen and civil servants establish inappropriate sexual relations with their women, due to which the problems of prostitution and extra-marital sex relations have flourished.

 

Health related problems (Problems Related to Health) Most of the tribes live in dense forests, hilly areas and lowlands. Many diseases are found in these parts. Due to wearing wet and dirty clothes, they get many skin diseases. Malaria, jaundice, small pox, rheumatic fever, indigestion and genital diseases are also found in these people. There is lack of hospitals, doctors and facilities of modern medicines for the treatment of diseases. This

People are using wild herbs, exorcism and witchcraft. Most of the tribals are ignorant of the rules of health. Nutritious food is also not available to them. These people have been using alcohol made from mahua, rice, palm, jaggery, etc. In its place, English liquor is now being used which is more harmful. Even in the absence of balanced diet and vitamin rich food, the health of these people is deteriorating day by day. As a result, there has been a decrease in their efficiency and capacity. The population of many tribes is getting destroyed. The biggest reason for the decrease in the population of the tribes of Andaman and Nicobar is the disease prevalent in them.

 

Problems Related to Education – Tribals lack education and they are growing up in the darkness of ignorance. Due to illiteracy, they are surrounded by many superstitions, evils and bad rituals. The tribal people are indifferent to the present education as it is unproductive for them. People who get modern education go away from their tribal culture and look at their original culture with hatred. Today’s education does not provide a sure means of livelihood. So educated people have to face unemployment. Christian missionaries have done the work of spreading education among the tribes, but their objective behind this has been to propagate Christianity and to convert the tribals. Most of the tribals are able to get primary education only, they are not much interested in higher technical and science education.

 

Problem of Political Awakening After independence, all the citizens of the country have been given democratic rights by the constitution and they have been made partners in governance. Today the representatives from Panchayat to Parliament are elected by the general public. Political parties play an important role in a democracy. The traditional political system of the tribes was of its own kind, in which mostly the hereditary chiefs used to do the administrative work. The rights and kinship given in their entire political system had special importance, but today they have become familiar with the new political system. They are also entitled to vote, aware of their socio-economic problems, have started using their political rights in the context of solving their problems. Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh. His political awareness has yielded bitter results in Assam, Bihar, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. His relations with administrators, landowners and tribal people have been strained. Political tension and rebellion have flourished in many places. They have demanded an autonomous state. Today they understand that their compulsion of small numbers has been taken advantage of by tribal groups and they have been exploited. They have a strong resentment towards this exploitation which flares up every now and then. Politicians are worried that this political awakening should not take a violent form in the future.

 

To Find out the Weakest Link The Commissioner of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in his annual report for 1967-68 has described one of the problems of the tribes as finding out the weakest link. The Scheduled Tribes of the country are poverty-stricken, but there are some tribes who are relatively poorer. Similarly, tribes have been neglected, but some tribes have been the most neglected. So the biggest problem is to find out the most poor and neglected tribe which is the weakest link of the tribes. Special programs should be made for the development and progress of this weak link and their needs should be fulfilled. The Tribal Commissioner has detected such weak links in various states. Charan, Dubla, Nai Kada and Barli tribes in Gujarat; Baiga, Gond, Maria, Bhumia, Kamar and Mawasi tribes in Madhya Pradesh; Bhotia, Jansari, Tharu tribes in Uttar Pradesh; The Bhil, Dabhor and Hariya tribes in Rajasthan come under the weakest link. The problem of weak link tribes is severe and serious as compared to other tribes.

 

Problem of Integral tion – Many differences are found in Indian tribes on the basis of economy, social system, constitutional arrangements and welfare schemes 431 3 Culture, religion and political system. They are different from other people of the country. Today, there is a need that collective efforts should be made by all the countrymen to get rid of the specific problems of the country and the tribes. The tribes should consider themselves separate from other people and connect them with the main stream of life of the country, only then we will be able to deal with the problems of poverty, exploitation, ignorance, illiteracy, disease, unemployment and poor health. To deal with these problems, cooperation and integration of various people groups into the main stream of national life is necessary. For this, minority groups will have to be made partners in the country’s economic-political economy and will have to be taken along with them in development plans. Thus integration of tribes is also a big problem.

 

Problems of Frontier Tribes – The problems of the tribes living in the North-Eastern Frontier Provinces are somewhat different from the problems of different parts of the country. China, Myanmar and Bangladesh near the north-eastern provinces of the country

Resh is Our relations with China have not been cordial for the last few years. Bangladesh, formerly known as East Pakistan, has been India’s bitter enemy. China and Pakistan have incited the spirit of rebellion among the tribes of the border provinces, helped them with weapons and gave shelter to the leaders of rebellious Naga and other tribes to go underground. Due to education and political awakening, the tribes of this region have demanded an autonomous state. For this they have done agitations and struggles. Therefore, the biggest problem today is to deal with the demand for autonomy of the tribes living in the border areas. Efforts have been made from time to time by the Government of India to solve the problems of the tribes. We will mention them here.

 

 

Constitutional Provisions Regarding Scheduled Tribes

 

 

 

 

The Fifth Schedule provides for the appointment of a Tribal Advisory Council consisting of a maximum of twenty members, of whom three-fourths of the members shall be from the Scheduled Tribes of the State Legislatures.

In Articles 324 and 244, the governors have been given privileges in the context of tribes.

There are some articles in the constitution which are applicable to Madhya Pradesh. Relating to giving special facilities to the tribal areas of Chhattisgarh, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, etc. For these people there is an age limit for applying for jobs. They have been exempted from fees in educational institutions as well and some places have been reserved for them. S

– 93rd Constitutional Amendment (2005) to provide reservation benefits to SC, ST and socially and educationally backward classes in private educational institutions (except minority educational institutions). The purpose of various provisions kept in the constitution is to bring the tribals at par with other citizens of the country. They have to be linked and integrated with the main stream of life of the country so that they can become partners in the economic and political business of the country. Pandit Nehru was also very interested in the development of tribes. They did not want anything to be imposed on them. He said that we should promote the development of their art and culture, respect their land rights, develop their self-governing ability and human character.

The educational and economic interests of the Scheduled Tribes should be protected and they should be saved from all kinds of exploitation and social injustice. (Article 46)

– No restriction should be placed on their admission in the schools run by the government or getting aid from government funds. (Article 29, 2)

Removal of obstructions to the use of shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment, the cost of which is wholly or partly borne by the Government or which are dedicated to the general public. (Article 15, 2)

– The doors of public places of Hindus should be opened for all Hindus by law. (Article 25B)

 

Fixed seats should be reserved for the representatives of Scheduled Tribes in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies on the basis of population till January 25, 2015. (Articles 324, 330 and 342).

 

– To empower the government to reserve seats for tribal people if they are not adequately represented in public services or government jobs and to consider the claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in appointments to government jobs. (Articles 16 and 335).

 

For the purpose of welfare and interests of tribes, tribal advisory councils and separate departments should be established in the states and a special officer should be appointed at the center. (Articles 164, 338 and Fifth Schedule) (8) Special arrangements should be made for the administration and control of Scheduled Tribe areas. (Article 224 and the Fifth and Sixth Schedules).

 

– According to Article 244 (2), there is a law to establish District and Regional Council for the tribes of Assam.

– Part 6 of the Constitution, Article 164, provides for the establishment of Tribal Ministry in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa in addition to Assam.

 

In Article 46 of Part 4 of the Constitution, it has been considered the duty of the state to pay special attention towards the progress of education and protection of economic interests of the tribes.

 

– Legal system to impose reasonable restrictions by the state on the general rights to move freely, live and settle in India and buy, hold and sell property in the interest of Scheduled Tribes. (Article 19, 5).

 

According to article 275 of the twelfth part of the constitution, the central government will give special funds to the states for tribal welfare and their proper administration.

– Article 325 of the fifteenth part of the constitution states that no one shall be denied voting rights on the basis of religion, race, caste and sex.

In Article 330 and 332 of the sixteenth part, seats have been reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies.

Article 335 assures that the government will reserve a place for them in jobs.

In Article 338, arrangements have been made for the appointment of a special officer for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes by the President. this official

Will submit its report every year.

 

Administrative Arrangement Some areas of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and Rajasthan are ‘Scheduled’ under Article 224 and the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution. The governors of these states report the Scheduled Areas to the President every year. The administration of Assam, Meghalaya and Mizoram is done on the basis of the provisions of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. According to this schedule, they are divided into autonomous districts. There are eight such districts—North Cachar Hills District and Mikir Hills District of Assam, United Khasi-Jaintia, Jowai and Garo Hills Districts of Meghalaya and Chakma, Lakher and Pavi Districts of Mizoram. Each autonomous district has a District Council consisting of not more than 30 members. Of these, four can be nominated and the rest are elected on the basis of adult suffrage. This council has been given some administrative, statutory and judicial rights.

 

Welfare and Advisory Agencies: It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Home Affairs of the Central Government to make plans for the welfare of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and implement them. In August 1978, a commission was established for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under Article 348 of the Constitution. It has a chairman and four members, the commission examines the provisions related to the security made for them in the constitution under the Civil Rights Act of 1955, 1955) and suggests appropriate measures. Parliamentary Committees The Government of India also appointed three Parliamentary Committees in 1968, 1971 and 1973 to examine the safeguards and welfare of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Constitution. At present, a permanent committee of the Parliament has been formed, whose tenure of the members has been kept for one year. This committee consists of 30 members, out of which 2 are taken from the Lok Sabha and 10 from the Rajya Sabha. Welfare Department in the States Separate departments have been set up in the State Governments and Union Territories for the care and welfare of Scheduled Castes and Tribes. Each state has its own specific method of administration. In Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha, separate ministers are appointed for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes under Article 164 of the Constitution. In some states, legislative committees have been formed like the parliamentary committees like the center.

 

Representation in Legislatures: Through Articles 330 and 332 of the Constitution, seats have been reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and State Legislatures in proportion to their population. Initially this arrangement was for 10 years, which has been extended till January 25, 2020 under the 95th Constitutional Amendment (2009). This type of reservation has been made by the Parliamentary Act in those Union Territories where there are Legislative Assemblies. At present, 47 seats in the Lok Sabha and 557 seats in the Legislative Assemblies have been reserved for the Scheduled Tribes. Places have also been reserved in Gram Panchayats and other local bodies for the people of the implementation of the Panchayati Raj system.

 

7. Reservations in Government Services for Scheduled Tribes in appointments to be made by open competition on all India basis or by any other means. 5 places have been reserved. For Group ‘C’ and ‘D’ posts in which appointments are made on local and provincial basis, each province and union territory reserves seats in proportion to the population of the Scheduled Castes. Scheduled Tribes in appointments made on the basis of departmental examinations to be held in Group ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘D’ and also in promotion in Group ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘D’ and ‘A’ 7% seats are reserved if not more than 66% direct recruitment is done in them. Group ‘A’ in which 2, 250 Rs. Places have also been reserved in promotions to posts with lower pay. Various types of relaxations have been given for providing representation in jobs to tribal people like relaxation in age limit, relaxation in suitability criteria, relaxation in unsuitability in selection, relaxation in experience qualification and Group ‘A’ research, scientific And relaxation in technical standards. The state governments have also made several provisions regarding the recruitment of Scheduled Castes in government services and giving them promotions. Some officers have been appointed to contact various ministries of the Central Government, who will see whether the orders to reserve places for them are followed or not. On February 25, 2007, the Central Government decided to provide reservation to SC and ST candidates from the year 2008 for admission to undergraduate medical and dental programs through the All India Entrance Examination.

 

The basic problems are related to the economic condition of the tribals. The entire tribal community in India is passing through an important phase of transition. Some of these problems are specific to certain areas while others are common to all tribal areas. among these

Many problems are a direct result of the changes taking place in the tribal community. HTML

E changes are also not uniform. Although; Some of the common problems tribals in India are facing are economic problems, geographical isolation problems, cultural problems, social problems, educational problems, religious problems, health problems, alcohol problems, etc.

 

 

1. Economic problems

Tribal people are the economically poorest people of India. Most of them live below the poverty line. The tribal economy is based on crude type of agriculture. Most of the problems are related to economic problems.

The illiteracy and innocence of the tribals are exploited by the outsiders. The British land policies led to ruthless exploitation of the tribals in various ways. Those policies were basically in favor of landlords, landlords, moneylenders, forest contractors and administrative officials. Most of the tribals were landless. Their lands were grabbed by outsiders and this also resulted in unemployment. The tribals earlier had a lot of freedom to use the forest and hunt their animals. They are emotionally attached to the forests because they believe that their deities, the spirits, reside in the forests. Tribals who have been ‘deprived’ of their rights to land and forests have reacted sharply to restrictions imposed by the government on their traditional rights. A large number of tribals are either unemployed or underemployed. They are not happy that they are not getting a job that can keep them busy throughout the year. They also need to be helped to find secondary sources of income. Tribals are always forced to depend on moneylenders, there is lack of banking facilities.

 

2. Problem of Geographical Isolation

The tribes are largely separated from the mainstream. Some of them are living in inaccessible physical areas such as deep forests, valleys or hills. It is difficult for them to mingle with others. Socially they are away from the developed society. Social isolation has caused severe social retardation. Due to geographical isolation, the developmental programs never touch the tribals. Tribals need to be saved from the effects of isolation.

 

 

3. Cultural problems

Tribes have their own culture. The outsiders always consider the tribals as ‘savages’. The British rule has created an inferiority complex among the tribals towards their culture. Christian missionaries tried to propagate their religion. This led to the alienation of the tribals from their culture. On the other hand Hindu organizations spread Brahmanism and Hinduism in some of these areas. Some tribal leaders have started popularizing tribal religion. These conflicting propagandas have caused much confusion and conflict for them.

 

 

4. Social Problems

Most of the tribes believe in mythology and superstitions. In these, child marriage, swapping of wives, homicide, infanticide, black magic, animal sacrifice and other harmful practices are found even today.

Hinduization has given rise to problems like dowry, divorce, untouchability, child marriage etc. The social status of tribals has worsened through Hindutva intervention. Studies have proved that due to Hinduisation, sanskritisation and modernization, the condition of tribes has deteriorated significantly.

Christianization of tribals has given rise to problems of alienation, alienation, religion conflicts and cultural confusion. Many tribals in the north-eastern states have become Christians during the last 100 years. Thus there is a large number of Christians among Khasis, Oraons, Bhils, Mizos, Nagas etc. As per estimates, tribal Christians constitute about 1/6th of the total Christian population of India. The impact of Christianization has adversely affected the traditional tribal cultures.

 

5. Educational Problems

Illiteracy is a major problem among the tribals, who constitute 80% of the total tribes. Their educational backwardness is responsible for the socio-economic backwardness at the mainstream level. Most of the tribes are far away from contact with the civilized world and have no faith in formal educational organization. Many tribes are not even given information about schools, colleges or universities. They have no desire to educate their children. Tribal people who are engaged in agriculture need their children in the fields or forests, which leads to a high dropout rate. Formal education is not compatible with the tribal culture which also causes conflict. The medium of instruction is another hindrance in the promotion of education among the tribes. Most of the tribal languages do not have any script of their own. Hence tribal students are forced to learn in a ‘foreign’ language. The shortage of tribal teachers creates communication problems between students and outside teachers.

 

 

6. Religious problems

The crisis on religious identity is a major problem of the tribals. Conversion and Hinduisation took place for them to lose their tribal identity, but not Hindu or Christian identity, as they are treated as double standards Hindu and Christian. they

have lost their traditional beliefs and values but have not developed a value system suitable for modernity. They have lost their traditional beliefs and values but have not developed a value system suitable for modernity. Their customs and practices have lost social meaning. That’s why they

are adopting urban lifestyle in the areas.

 

 

7. Health Problems

Tribals are away from modern medicine due to ignorance. They are not aware of the sanitation related problems. They generally believe that diseases are caused by hostile spirits and ghosts. They have their own traditional means of diagnosis and treatment. typhoid, tuberculosis, leprosy,

 

 

Malaria and skin diseases are common among the tribes. But, their mistrust in modern doctors has forced them not to take advantage of modern medical facilities.

Alcoholism is a common problem seen in many tribes. Low self-esteem, exploitation of outsiders through providing alcohol, and social environment lead to more alcoholics and alcoholism as a disease is widespread in most tribes.

Many regional and local problems are also worsening the social condition of the tribals. The unscientific welfare programs implemented create harm rather than benefit. Administrative bodies are corrupt and funds are misused or exploited. Insurgency, insurgency and terrorism are recent problems among some tribes. The police and military forces incite the tribals to revolt against the establishment. There have been several rebellions and insurrections since 1772 in Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram and Nagaland. Foreign infiltrators of bordering countries have exploited the innocence for their smuggling activities, contraband drugs and unlicensed weapons are smuggled in. Some tribals of the North-East have also been addicted to drugs.

Tribal unrest and rebellion

The severe economic exploitation, land grabbing, sexual exploitation and conversions have evoked strong reactions among the tribals. They are agitated by these exploitations, they have been rebelling against the ruling establishment for various reasons since the days of British rule. Important tribes involved in the 19th century Mansh rebellion were the Mizos, Kols, Mundas, Khasis, Garos, Santhals, Nagas and Kondhs. There have been many tribal insurgencies in the north-eastern frontier and central India even after independence, some of the contemporary movements are the Jharkhand, Gond, Nagra, Mizo and Bodoland movements.

It is possible to identify some major types of tribal movements:

1) Religious and Social Reform Movement

2) Movement for statehood or autonomy for tribal areas within the Indian Union.

3) Rebel movement for independence from the Indian Union

4) Movement to emphasize cultural rights

The major causes of tribal unrest have been identified as:

1) Government Failures

2) Political apathy

3) Lack of efficient tribal leadership

4) Unjust Forest Policy

5) Other alienation of tribal land

6) Irresponsibility and lack of accountability of Tribal Development Agencies

7) Forced cultural attribution

 

 

This is compounded by various social, political, economic and legal factors, which have contributed to the problem of tribal unrest.

tribal welfare program

The measures for the upliftment of tribals have been started since independence. british government

did practically nothing. The only thing the British did was to keep the tribals away from contact with the civilized people. The British policies of separating the tribals from the rest of the people aroused suspicion in the minds of the nationalists. He strongly criticized the British policy.

Various solutions have been presented to effectively deal with the tribal problems. Tribal problems have been seen from three perspectives.

 

 

1) Policy of Isolation Hutton and V Elwin have suggested that tribals should be kept away from the rest of the society. Isolating Adivasis in ‘National Parks’ or Reserves would solve two problems: 1) Adivasis would be in a position to maintain their identity. 2) They will be free from exploitation by outsiders. It was suggested that Adivasis should be given sufficient time to assimilate themselves with others.

2) Policy of assimilation Christian missionaries, Hindu social reformers and voluntary organizations have advocated assimilation. This approach suggested that helping the tribals to assimilate with the mainstream was the solution to the problems of the tribals. Some favored full assimilation into Hindu society. But this was impossible as the tribals were not ready to give up all their traditional beliefs, practices and values. This solution can also create religious, economic and moral degradation among the tribes

3) Policy of Integration: A policy of isolation is neither possible nor desirable and assimilation would mean imposition. Therefore only dialogue can provide the tribals with a betterment which will also help in maintaining their identity. This

Recommends resettlement of tribals on plains with others but away from isolated sites, this solution is criticized as it will cater to the needs of industrialists and capitalists. This subsidization can create ethical problems as they will be forced to give away more of their own kind.

 

 

These approaches have their own merits and demerits. No solution can be used before winning the confidence of the tribals. Modern culture should not be imposed on them. It is necessary to establish a harmonious compatibility between the material advancement of the tribal way of life and culture. As Nehru observed, ‘The tribal people have a varied culture and are certainly not backward. trying to make them second fiddle to themselves

There is no point in wishing.

 

 

Nehru proposed five principles as ‘Panchsheela’ as part of the policy of integration:

1) Nothing should be imposed on the tribals. The traditional culture of each tribe is to be encouraged.

2) Tribes having rights over land should be respected

3) Efforts should be made to train a team of its own people for administration and development work.

4) Over-administration of tribal areas with too many schemes of development should be avoided. We should not work in rivalry with their own social age-old cultural institutions.

5) The results of work should be judged on the basis of quality of human characters developed and not on figures or amount spent.

Based on ‘Panchsheela’, the government established 43 tribal blocks in different states to promote welfare programs for tribals. The government implements various projects and programs through the Tribal Welfare Department. Some of the measures for tribal welfare are given below:

1) Constitutional Safeguards

The Constitution of India has made several provisions to protect the interests of the tribals. Major articles are:

1. Article 15 provides equal rights and opportunities without any discrimination.
2. Reservation under Articles 16(4), 320(4) and 335 in employment to tribals.
3. Under Articles 330, 332 and 334, seats have been reserved for them in the Legislative Assemblies.
4. Under Article 19(5) tribals can acquire property and enjoy it in any part of the country.
5. Under Article 339(2) the Central Government can give directions to the States in the formulation and execution of tribal welfare schemes, projects and programmes.
6. Article 46 contains provisions protecting the economic and educational interests of the tribals.

In addition to the constitutional provisions, the government appoints committees, commissions and study groups from time to time. Kaka Kalelkar, (1953–55), Renuka Ray (1958–59), U.N. Dhebar (1960-61) and B.P. Mandel (1979-80) were some of those who headed various commissions.

2) Special Central Assistance

States are given special central assistance to supplement their efforts in tribal development. This assistance is for family oriented income generation schemes and minimum need program in the areas of agriculture, horticulture, minor irrigation, soil conservation, animal husbandry, forest, education, cooperatives and small scale industries.

 

 

3. Economic Programs and Facilities

Various economic programs and projects have been launched to improve their economic condition.

1. Development through five year plans
2. Integrated Tribal Development Projects
3. Establishment of multipurpose cooperative societies
4. Establishment of Indian Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Association
5. 20th Point Program
6. Vocational Training in Tribal Areas
7. Promotion of crafts and home industries
8. Agriculture Development Program
9. Promotion of labor interests of tribals
10. Educational Facilities

Measures have been taken by the government to provide education facilities to the tribals. Schools are established in tribal areas. Students are supported by concessions, scholarships and stipends. Mid-day meal is provided. Special hostels have been set up for the tribals. st girls education

Pockets with low literacy have been established. Ashram schools began to provide basic education and vocational training for the tribes. Pre-examination training centers have been started at many places for ST. Girls and boys hostels were started for ST.

5. Medical facilities

Various medical facilities have been provided for the tribals. Hospitals are established at some places. Mobile hospital facility has been provided in some areas. Several preventive and curative measures are taken for contact diseases like malaria, typhoid, small pox etc. Medical camps are organized in tribal areas.

6. Research work

Tribal Research Institutes have been established in various states. These studies helped in identifying the real conditions, problems and challenges of the tribes in different places in India. These institutes are engaged in providing planning inputs to the State Governments.

7. Voluntary Organization Participation

Voluntary organizations are also engaged in tribal upliftment. Organizations like Bharatiya Adim Jati Sevak Sangh, Bhil Seva Mandal, Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial Trust, Vanvasi Kalyanashram and many Christian, Hindu and Muslim organizations are some of the NGOs working in this area. The government gives grants-in-aid to NGOs working for the upliftment of tribals.

 

 

A critical appraisal of tribal welfare programs reveals that many projects were implemented properly. It was noted that tribal welfare schemes have become an area of exploitation. Even after spending crores of rupees by the government for the development of tribals, no benefit has reached the hands of the needy. Administrators, political leaders even social workers have used tribals as targets for their personal development. The tribal development program became one of the most prominent ‘white elephant projects’ in independent India. Officially, the government has spent lakhs of rupees for each tribe in many areas, but they have not received much benefit from it.

some of the scholars

Defects are:

1) The administrators have failed to understand the real problems of the tribals and their diverse issues. He considered the tribes in India as a single group.

2) The planners never took into account the relative numerical strength of the various tribes. difference is ignored

3) The administrators put forward a general program which was inadequate and unsuccessful in many tribal groups

4) In many projects the felt needs of the tribals were never taken into consideration. Priorities were never fixed keeping in view the immediate and distant needs.

5) A major portion of the funds allocated for developmental programs were spent on setting up schemes and project for payment of salaries to officials.

6) May’s educational and health programs were found to be of very poor quality.

7) Adequate food and water supplies were not supplied or did not reach the hands of the tribals. The dress and good domestic conditions were not well received by the Aborigines.

8) The new economic system has created new problems and challenges for the tribals. Unemployment prompted them to borrow money from moneylenders and this itself created a lot of problems. No adequate measures have been taken to deal with these issues

9) The educational programs launched by the government have been found to be disappointing. The teachers were not properly trained to create a tribal friendly environment in the schools.

10) It is also observed that many State Governments have failed to utilize the funds effectively.

Much has been done for the tribals, much remains unfinished. The progress achieved in this area is far from satisfactory. The basic perception of tribals as an object of development has to be changed. The concept of civilization should not be imposed on the tribals. The notion of development for outsiders was not suitable for the tribals. It never satisfied on supplementing the special socio-cultural qualities of the tribes. It destroyed the self-esteem and confidence of the tribals by making them dependent and helpless. A socio-anthropological approach has to be developed for tribal development. The involvement of NGOs has to be supported and moderated for better results.

 

 

 

 

Welfare Programs:

1) Programs for on the job training

2) Production Training Center

3) Financial assistance for appearing for the interview

4) Pre Exam Tray

inning centers

5) Technical training in private institutions

6) Employment oriented education and other technical training

7) Self Employed

8) Housing Project

9) Assistance for maintenance of houses

10) Financial assistance for repair of houses and wells

12) land for building a house

13) Financial Assistance for Partners in Mixed Marriages

14) Cooperative Societies

15) Special Loan

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

REFERENCES

 

 

• Bose, N.K. 1963. ‘Fifty Years of Science in India: Progress of Anthropology and Archaeology’. Indian Science Congress Association.
• Dube, S.C. 1952. ‘The Urgent Task of Anthropology in India’, in the proceedings of the 1Vth International Congress of Anthropology and Ethnological Sciences, held at Vienna, 1952, published in 1956, 273-75.
• Dube, S.C. 1962 ‘Anthropology in India’, in Indian Anthropology: Essays in Memory of D.N. Majumdar. ed. T.N. Madan and Gopala Sarana. Bombay: Asia Publishing
• Eriksen, Thomas 1995. Small Places, Large Issues: An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology. 2^nd edition 2001, London: Pluto Press.
• Evans-Pritchard, E. 1966. Social Anthropology and Other Essays. New York: Free Press.
• Ghurye, S. 1956. ‘The Teachings of Sociology, Social Psychology and Social Anthropology’. The Teachings of Social Sciences in India. UNESCO Publication. 1956 pp 161-73.
• Haddon, C. 1934. History of Anthropology. London: Watts and Co. chapter1. Majumdar, D.N. and T.N. Madan. 1957. An Introduction to Social Anthropology.
• Bombay: Asia Publishing
• Malinowski, Bronislaw. 1922. Argonauts of the Western Pacific. Sixth impression London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
• Mair, Lucy. 1972. An Introduction to Social Anthropology. Oxford: Oxford University
• Roy, S.C. 1923. ‘Anthropological Researches in India’. Man in India. Vol-1 1921. Pp 11-56.
• Sinha, Surajit. ‘Is There an Indian Tradition in Social Cultural Anthropology: Retrospect and Prospect’. Presented in a conference. The Nature and Function of Anthropological Traditions. New York: Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research.
• Vidyarthi, L.P. 1978. Rise of Anthropology in India. Delhi: Concept Publishing
• Eriksen, Thomas 1995. Small Places, Large Issues: An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology. 2^nd edition 2001, London: Pluto Press.
• Mair, Lucy. 1972. An Introduction to Social Anthropology. Oxford: Oxford University
• Vidyarthi, L.P. 1978. Rise of Anthropology in India. Delhi: Concept Publishing