SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY ON EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
Merton analysed the relations of sociological theory and empirical research in his major work Social Theory and Social Structure in the form of article entitled “Bearing of sociological theory on empirical research”. Sociological theory refers “to the products of several related but distinct activities carried on by members of a professional group called sociologists” Merton discussed six types of work essential to make the relationship between dialogical theory and empirical research.
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Methodology;
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general sociological orientations;
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analysis of sociological concepts;
(4) Post factum sociological interpretations;
(5) empirical generalisations in sociology; and
(6) sociological theory
(1) Methodology
Merton believes that sociologists must be methodologically wise and aware of the design of investigation, the nature of inference, the requirements of a theoretic system. Methodology, in fact, is not bound up with sociological problems. In this sense, sociologists must make a clear “difference between knowing how to test a battery of hypotheses and knowing the theory from which to derive hypotheses to be tested”.s an appropriate methodological approach would be fruitful to make a bridge between methodological aspiration and actual sociological attainment.
(2) General Sociological Orientations
In text book, much is described about sociological theory of general orientations toward substantive materials. “Such orientations involve broad postulates which indicate types of variables which are somehow to be taken into account rather than specifying determinate relationships between particular variables”. These general orientations provide a broader framework for empirical inquiry. Sociologists, in fact, have “to detect sociological gaps in the application of their theory to concrete social behaviour.”
(3) Analysis of Sociological Concepts
Conceptual analysis is an indispensable phase of theoretical orientation. “Concepts, then, constitute the definitions (or prescriptions) of what is to be observed; they are the variables between which empirical relationships are to be sought when propositions are logically interrelated, a theory has been instituted”.
The choice of concepts are major part of empirical inquiry.
(4) Post Factum Sociological Interpretations
Post factum is designed to ‘explain’ observations. Such post factum explanations “differ in logical function from speciously similar procedures where the observational materials are utilised in order to device fresh hypotheses to be confirmed by near observations”
Pest factum explanation remain at the level of plausibility Gown evidential value) rather than leading to “compelling evidence” (a high degree of confirmation) Plausibility is found only when an interpretation is consistent with one set of data. On the other, “the absence of compelling evidence stems from the failure to provide distinctive tests of the interpretations apart from their consistency with the initial observations”
(5) Empirical Generalisations in Sociology
Empirical generalisations in sociology involve all isolated proposition summarising observed uniformities of relationships between two or more variables. Empirical inquiry is involved in the process of direct research. If empirical inquiry is organised and empirical uniformities are discovered then there is the possibility to develop theoretical system.
(6) Sociological Theory
to make the relationship between empirical generalisation and Sociological theory, it may be useful to examine a familiar case in which such empirical generalisations were of substantive theory.
Merton, in a nutshell, points out the following facts that are necessary to make relations between sociological theory and empirical research. In his own words,
- Once having established the theoretic pertinence of a uniformity by deriving it from a set of interrelated propositions, we provide for the accumulation both of theory and of research findings…
- The conversion of empirical uniformities into theoretic statements thus increase the fruitfulness of research through the successive exploration of implications.
- By providing a rationale, the theory introduces a ground for prediction which is more secure than mere extrapolation from previously observed trends…
- If theory is to be productive, it must be sufficiently precise to be determinable. Precision is an incorporated into a body empirical integral element of the criterion of lest ability.
- ……. Precise predictions and data serve to reduce the empirical bearing upon research of the logical fallacy of attiring the consequent.
In the analysis of two, there are few instances to formul.ate hypotheses derived from a given theory. Hypotheses, according to Merton, could be formulated with the help of empirical inquiries rather than central theoretical orientation. The large bulk of general orientations and conceptual analyses reflect the tendency to separate theoretical activity from empirical research. “It is commonplace that continuity, rather than dispersion, can be
Achieved only if empirical studies are theory oriented and if theory is empirically confirmable “.
The correlative process between sociological theory and empirical research is termed as ‘codification’. The term ‘codification is given by Lazarsfeld. Formal derivation focuses upon the implications of a theory, whereas codification seeks to systematise available empirical generalisations is apparently different spheres of behaviour. In this context, codification creates theoretical problems. “A codified formulation, even as crude as this, gives rise to theoretic problems which would be readily overlooked if the several empirical findings were not re-examined within a single context”. And hence, codification facilitates the co-development of viable sociological theory and pertinent empirical research.
CONCLUSION
Merton is known for his contribution to functionalism as bringing in greater scope for meso-levels of analysis through his „middle range theories (of deviance for example). Such theories have an empirical grounding instead of being explanations structured around the realm of abstraction. His ideas are more methodologically oriented rather a claim over a grand theory.
Robert K. Merton is considered to be the most outstanding American sociologist who has made major contribution in the field of sociological concepts, theories and methods of sociology. During the decades 1940s to 1960s, Merton got mainstream position in American Sociology. His major contribution in sociology are the science of sociology. Functional approach, social system and social structure, sociological theory and social change and its related theme. Merton considered sociology as a scientific discipline. In this sense, he tries to bridge the hiatus between sociological theory and empirical research. Merton illustrates his application of sociological theory and empirical research to the theory of reference group, anomie and nature of science or ethos of science. In addition to it, Merton’s most important theoretical orientations are theories of the middle range, paradigm, the self-fulfilling prophecy, anticipatory socialisation, the role-set, manifest and and so on. Merton has followed a functional approach to analyse social structure of society. The important fact related to Merton’s functional analysis is that his functionalism is located in time and space and deals with the empirical reality. In functional analysis, He points out the problems of structural functionalism and conceptual confusion. For this, he formulates three postulates and provides a broader conceptual framework, such as, function, dysfunction, non-functional, latent and manifest function, to understand and analyse the perspective of functionalism in a precise manner. Merton also has dealt the concepts of role, status, social structure social system, group, and so on. These are the basic unit for understanding the nature of society. However, he gives more emphasis on social structure. Merton describes not only social but ecological factors also in the analysis of social structure, status and real. Merton’s psychological emphasis can be seen in the analyse is of membership group and in the concept of anticipatory socialisation. In theoretical analysis, Merton takes a middle path between macro and micro theories in terms of middle range theory. In middle range theories conceptual abstractions emerge from the need to understand certain concrete empirical situations. Merton, in this context, very much cautious about the formulation of problem and the empirical verification of hypotheses. He also makes special attention on the construction of theory. Therefore, he provides tools of logical classification called paradigm for the construction of theory.
However, Merton has been criticised on many fronts for his theoretical, methodological and conceptual understanding. Many later sociologists accuse him of neglecting the unique historical and symbolic features of social reality which require entirely different methods of study than what is available through empirical methods of science. Second point of criticism is that he has given more emphasis on functionalism which is based on principles of agreement or consensus and social order. However, Merton has discussed the various ways of arising out of strain and conflict among the member of society. Despite his criticism, we can not say that Merton has not maintained the quality of sociological writings. He, in fact, is a serious and thoughtful scholar, a superb sociologist, and one who has illuminated every subject to which he has directed his attention.
manner. Merton also has dealt the concepts of role, status, social structure social system, group, and so on. These are the basic unit for understanding the nature of society. However, he gives more emphasis on social structure. Merton describes not only social but ecological factors also in the analysis of social structure, status and real. Merton’s psychological emphasis can be seen in the analyse is of membership group and in the concept of anticipatory socialisation. In theoretical analysis, Merton takes a middle path between macro and micro theories.