Women and Development

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Women and Development

Unit I: Statistical Profile of Women in India

Women in India play a crucial role in various socio-economic spheres, yet they face numerous challenges related to labour, health, violence, and education. Over the years, the Government of India and international organizations like the UN have implemented policies, reports, and programs to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment.

1. Statistical Profile of Women in India

1.1 Women in Labour Force

Women’s participation in the labour force is a key indicator of economic empowerment and gender equality. However, India continues to have one of the lowest female labour force participation rates (FLFPR) in the world.

Key Statistics and Trends:

  • As per the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2022-23, India’s female labour force participation rate was 37%, showing a slight improvement but still significantly lower than global averages.
  • Women are overrepresented in informal sectors, including agriculture, domestic work, and unorganized sectors, where they lack social security and fair wages.
  • Gender Wage Gap: Women earn less than men for the same work. As per ILO reports, Indian women earn 19% less than men on average.
  • Unpaid Domestic Work: Women spend an average of 5-6 hours per day on unpaid care work, whereas men spend only 30-40 minutes.

Challenges in Women’s Labour Participation:

  • Gender Stereotypes: Women are often discouraged from pursuing careers due to societal norms.
  • Workplace Discrimination: Many workplaces show bias in hiring, promotions, and salary increments for women.
  • Lack of Maternity Benefits: Although the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 extended paid maternity leave to 26 weeks, many private-sector firms hesitate to hire women due to additional costs.
  • Decline in Rural Female Workforce: With the mechanization of agriculture, rural women are losing their jobs in farming and allied sectors.

1.2 Women’s Health in India

Women’s health is influenced by socio-economic conditions, access to healthcare, and nutrition levels. Despite progress, maternal mortality, reproductive health, and malnutrition remain critical concerns.

Key Health Indicators:

  • Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR):
    • India’s MMR has declined to 97 deaths per 100,000 live births (SRS 2020), but it remains higher in states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh.
  • Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):
    • The IMR for female infants is 28 per 1,000 live births, reflecting gender-based neglect.
  • Malnutrition and Anemia:
    • According to NFHS-5 (2019-21), 57% of Indian women aged 15-49 suffer from anemia, leading to complications during pregnancy and childbirth.
    • Stunting and Wasting in Girls: Malnourished mothers often give birth to underweight children, creating an intergenerational cycle of malnutrition.
  • Access to Menstrual Hygiene:
    • Only 58% of rural women have access to sanitary products.
    • Lack of sanitation facilities in schools leads to high dropout rates among adolescent girls.

Government Initiatives for Women’s Health:

  • Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): Promotes institutional deliveries by providing financial incentives.
  • POSHAN Abhiyan: Aims to reduce malnutrition among pregnant women and children.
  • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Addresses issues of female infanticide and discrimination in healthcare.
  • Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): Provides financial assistance to pregnant and lactating mothers for nutrition.

1.3 Violence Against Women in India

Violence against women (VAW) is a major human rights violation, impacting their physical, mental, and emotional well-being.

Forms of Violence Against Women:

  • Domestic Violence:
    • As per NFHS-5, 31% of married women experience domestic violence.
    • The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA), 2005 aims to safeguard women from abuse.
  • Sexual Harassment at Workplace:
    • Vishaka Guidelines (1997) led to the formation of the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013.
  • Human Trafficking:
    • Women are trafficked for forced labour, sex work, and domestic servitude.
    • The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 criminalizes trafficking, but enforcement remains weak.
  • Dowry-Related Violence:
    • Despite the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, thousands of women face dowry deaths and harassment every year.
  • Acid Attacks:
    • India records 250-300 acid attacks annually, with survivors suffering lifelong trauma and disabilities.

Government Measures to Prevent Violence:

  • Nirbhaya Fund: Allocated for safety and security initiatives for women.
  • One Stop Centre Scheme: Provides medical, legal, and psychological support to survivors of violence.
  • Women Helpline (181): Offers emergency assistance to women facing violence.

1.4 Women and Education in India

Education is the most powerful tool for women’s empowerment, enabling them to access opportunities and challenge discrimination.

Key Educational Indicators:

  • Female Literacy Rate:
    • India’s female literacy rate is 70.3% (Census 2011), compared to 84.7% for men, highlighting the gender gap in education.
  • School Dropout Rates:
    • Adolescent girls often drop out due to early marriages, household responsibilities, and lack of school infrastructure.
  • Gender Gap in Higher Education:
    • Women’s enrollment in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) courses is still low.

Government Policies for Women’s Education:

  • Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009: Ensures free and compulsory education for girls up to the age of 14.
  • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Encourages education for the girl child and discourages gender discrimination.
  • Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV): Provides residential schools for girls from disadvantaged communities.
  • Scholarships for Girls: Programs like CBSE Udaan, Pragati Scholarship for Girls, and National Scheme of Incentives for Girls aim to boost female participation in education.

2. State Policies, Reports, and Programs for Women

2.1 Government Policies for Women’s Development

The Government of India has implemented various gender-sensitive policies:

  • National Policy for the Empowerment of Women (2001): Focuses on economic and social empowerment.
  • Mission Shakti: A new initiative aimed at women’s safety, security, and empowerment.
  • Working Women’s Hostel Scheme: Provides safe accommodation for working women in cities.

3. Role of the United Nations in Women’s Development

3.1 UN Conferences on Women’s Rights

The United Nations (UN) has played a vital role in shaping policies for women’s development through international conventions:

  • Beijing Declaration (1995): Set a framework for gender equality and women’s empowerment.
  • CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 1979): A legally binding treaty to end discrimination.
  • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Goal 5 aims at achieving gender equality by 2030.

Conclusion

Despite progress, gender disparities persist in India in labour force participation, education, health, and violence. The government, NGOs, and international organizations continue to work towards ensuring women’s empowerment through policy reforms, legal frameworks, and grassroots initiatives. However, achieving true gender equality requires greater social awareness, enforcement of laws, and a cultural shift in attitudes toward women.

 

 

 

Unit II: Perspectives on Development & Women’s Role in Work, Livelihood, and Politics

1. Perspectives on Development: WID, WAD, GAD, and Sustainable Development

The study of women and development has evolved over time, leading to various theoretical perspectives. These frameworks help in understanding the gendered nature of development and suggest ways to promote gender equity.

1.1 Women in Development (WID)

  • Emerged in the 1970s as a response to the exclusion of women from mainstream development policies.
  • Recognized that women contribute significantly to economic and social development, yet they remain marginalized.
  • Focused on integrating women into existing development programs rather than changing the structures that cause inequality.
  • Criticism:
    • Did not challenge patriarchal structures and economic inequalities.
    • Treated women as a homogeneous group, ignoring factors like caste, class, and ethnicity.
    • Lacked focus on women’s agency and empowerment beyond economic participation.

1.2 Women and Development (WAD)

  • Emerged in the late 1970s as a critique of WID, drawing insights from Marxist and socialist feminism.
  • Focused on women’s productive and reproductive roles in society, linking gender inequalities to global capitalism.
  • Key arguments:
    • Women’s subordination is rooted in economic dependence on men.
    • Gender inequality cannot be solved by just adding women to development—it requires structural changes.
  • Criticism:
    • Overemphasized economic structures and ignored cultural and social aspects of gender discrimination.
    • Did not focus on the diverse experiences of women across different societies.

1.3 Gender and Development (GAD)

  • Developed in the 1980s as a response to the limitations of WID and WAD.
  • Shifted the focus from women’s participation to gender relations and power dynamics.
  • Emphasized the need for policy changes, legal frameworks, and social transformation to achieve gender equality.
  • Key aspects:
    • Analyzed how social, political, and economic structures reinforce gender inequality.
    • Focused on intersectionality, recognizing the role of caste, class, ethnicity, and religion in shaping women’s experiences.
    • Advocated for men’s involvement in gender equality movements.
  • Criticism:
    • Difficult to implement due to deep-rooted social norms.
    • Some argue that it still relies heavily on Western feminist perspectives.

1.4 Sustainable Development and Gender Equality

  • The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 5 (Gender Equality), emphasize the importance of including women in development.
  • Key aspects of sustainable development related to women:
    • Women’s education and skill development for long-term economic growth.
    • Equal pay and workplace rights to ensure financial independence.
    • Access to healthcare, reproductive rights, and maternal care.
    • Combating climate change by involving women in environmental decision-making.

2. Women, Work, and Livelihood

Women’s participation in economic activities plays a crucial role in national development, but they continue to face multiple challenges in employment and livelihood security.

2.1 Women in the Labour Market

  • Women’s work can be categorized into:
    • Formal sector employment: Jobs with wages, security, and benefits (e.g., government jobs, corporate positions).
    • Informal sector employment: Daily wage workers, domestic laborers, artisans, agricultural labor.
    • Unpaid labor: Household chores, caregiving, child-rearing, and subsistence farming, which are not recognized in economic data.

Challenges Faced by Women in Employment

  • Gender Pay Gap: Women earn significantly lower wages than men for the same work.
  • Job Insecurity: A large proportion of women work in the informal sector, with no job security, maternity benefits, or social protection.
  • Workplace Harassment: Many women face gender discrimination, harassment, and unsafe work environments.
  • Low Representation in Leadership: Women are underrepresented in decision-making positions, including politics and corporate sectors.

Government Initiatives for Women’s Economic Empowerment

  • Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): Ensures 100 days of wage employment for rural households, with special provisions for women.
  • Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY): Provides microfinance loans to women entrepreneurs.
  • Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA): Empowers women in the informal sector by providing them with skills, training, and financial resources.
  • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme: Encourages girls’ education and empowerment for better economic participation.

3. Women and Politics: A Special Focus on Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs)

3.1 Women’s Political Representation in India

  • Women’s participation in governance has improved over the years, but challenges remain.
  • Women’s representation in Parliament and State Assemblies is still below 15%.
  • The Women’s Reservation Bill (108th Amendment) proposes 33% reservation for women in Parliament and State Legislatures.

3.2 Panchayati Raj Institutions and Women’s Leadership

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992) was a significant step toward women’s political empowerment at the grassroots level.

Key Provisions of the 73rd Amendment

  • Mandatory 33% reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).
  • Encouraged women’s participation in decision-making at the village, block, and district levels.
  • Allowed women from marginalized communities (SCs/STs) to enter politics.

Impact of Women’s Participation in PRIs

  • Improved Governance: Women leaders focus on education, healthcare, sanitation, and social welfare.
  • Increased Awareness: Women in villages become more aware of their rights, laws, and policies.
  • Reduction in Gender-based Violence: Women leaders take action against domestic violence, child marriage, and dowry harassment.

Challenges Faced by Women in PRIs

  • Proxy Representation: Many women leaders are controlled by male family members, reducing their autonomy.
  • Lack of Training and Awareness: Many women lack knowledge of administrative processes and legal provisions.
  • Social Barriers: Patriarchal norms and traditional mindsets discourage women from actively participating in politics.

3.3 Role of NGOs in Political Empowerment

  • National Alliance of Women’s Organizations (NAWO): Trains women leaders in political participation.
  • Centre for Social Research (CSR): Conducts capacity-building programs for women politicians.
  • Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA): Supports women in community leadership.

Conclusion

Unit II provides a comprehensive understanding of women’s role in development, focusing on various theoretical perspectives, employment challenges, and political participation. The WID, WAD, and GAD approaches highlight different aspects of gender and development, while sustainable development emphasizes long-term inclusion. Women’s role in work and livelihood remains critical, yet challenges like the gender pay gap, informal labor, and workplace discrimination persist. The Panchayati Raj system has significantly increased women’s political representation, yet social and cultural barriers remain. Empowering women economically and politically is key to achieving true gender equality and inclusive development.

 

 

 

 

Unit III: Women and Law – Constitutional Provisions, Legal Framework, NGOs, and Micro-Credit Groups

Women’s legal rights in India are deeply embedded in the Constitution of India and various legislative frameworks aimed at ensuring gender equality, protection, and empowerment. Additionally, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Micro-Credit Groups play a crucial role in women’s socio-economic upliftment.

1. Major Constitutional Provisions for Women in India

The Indian Constitution provides a strong legal foundation for women’s rights, equality, and empowerment. Several provisions directly address the need to safeguard women against discrimination, exploitation, and injustice.

A. Fundamental Rights Ensuring Gender Equality

  1. Article 14 – Right to Equality:
    • Ensures equal treatment of men and women under the law.
    • Prohibits discrimination based on gender.
  2. Article 15(1) – Prohibition of Gender Discrimination:
    • The State cannot discriminate based on sex, caste, or religion.
    • Recognizes women’s right to equal opportunities.
  3. Article 15(3) – Special Provisions for Women and Children:
    • Allows the State to take affirmative action for women’s empowerment.
    • Enables policies like reservation in education and employment.
  4. Article 16 – Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment:
    • Prohibits discrimination against women in government jobs.

B. Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)

These principles guide the government in formulating policies to ensure social justice for women.

  1. Article 39(a) – Right to Livelihood:
    • Ensures equal pay for equal work for men and women.
  2. Article 39(d) – Equal Remuneration:
    • Mandates that women get fair wages and job security.
  3. Article 42 – Maternity Relief:
    • Directs the State to provide maternity leave and benefits.
  4. Article 47 – Duty of the State to Improve Public Health:
    • Recognizes women’s health and nutrition as a priority.

C. Special Legal Provisions for Women’s Political Empowerment

  1. Article 243D – Reservation in Panchayati Raj Institutions:
    • 33% reservation for women in local governance.
  2. Article 243T – Reservation in Municipalities:
    • Mandates reservation for women in urban local bodies.

2. Major Laws Protecting Women’s Rights in India

Several laws have been enacted to address issues like violence, discrimination, property rights, and workplace harassment.

A. Laws on Violence Against Women

  1. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005:
    • Provides legal protection against physical, emotional, and financial abuse.
    • Covers live-in relationships and ensures residence rights.
  2. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961:
    • Criminalizes the giving and receiving of dowry.
    • Imposes penalties for dowry-related harassment.
  3. The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012:
    • Provides stringent punishment for sexual offenses against minors.
  4. The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 (Nirbhaya Act):
    • Strengthened laws on sexual harassment, rape, and acid attacks.

B. Laws on Women’s Workplace Rights

  1. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976:
    • Ensures equal pay for men and women for the same work.
  2. The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (Amended 2017):
    • Provides 26 weeks of paid maternity leave.
    • Ensures job security and maternity benefits.
  3. The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013:
    • Defines sexual harassment at work.
    • Mandates the formation of Internal Complaints Committees (ICCs).

C. Laws on Property and Marriage Rights

  1. The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 (Amended 2005):
    • Grants equal inheritance rights to daughters.
  2. The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986:
    • Protects Muslim women’s rights after divorce.
  3. The Special Marriage Act, 1954:
    • Allows inter-caste and inter-religion marriages.

3. The Role of NGOs in Women’s Empowerment

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have played a significant role in promoting women’s rights, legal awareness, education, and economic independence.

A. Key Functions of NGOs for Women

  1. Legal Aid and Advocacy:
    • NGOs provide legal support for victims of domestic violence, dowry harassment, and workplace discrimination.
  2. Women’s Education and Literacy Programs:
    • Promote girls’ education in rural and marginalized communities.
  3. Skill Development and Employment Generation:
    • NGOs like SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association) empower women through vocational training.
  4. Health and Sanitation Programs:
    • Provide awareness on menstrual health, reproductive rights, and maternal care.
  5. Anti-Trafficking and Rehabilitation Programs:
    • Organizations like Prajwala work against human trafficking and provide support for survivors.

4. Micro-Credit Groups and Women’s Economic Empowerment

A. Concept of Micro-Credit for Women

Micro-credit refers to small loans given to women entrepreneurs and self-help groups (SHGs) to promote financial independence.

B. Benefits of Micro-Credit Groups for Women

  1. Financial Inclusion and Independence:
    • Helps women start small businesses without collateral.
  2. Reduction in Poverty and Unemployment:
    • Increases household income, reducing economic dependence on men.
  3. Promotion of Self-Help Groups (SHGs):
    • Groups like Lijjat Papad and Kudumbashree have transformed rural women’s livelihoods.
  4. Government Schemes Supporting Micro-Credit for Women:
    • Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) – Provides low-interest loans for women’s businesses.
    • Mudra Yojana for Women – Encourages women to start small-scale enterprises.

Conclusion

Women’s rights in India are constitutionally guaranteed and legally protected, but challenges remain in implementation. NGOs and micro-credit initiatives have made significant progress in empowering women, promoting economic independence, social justice, and gender equality. Strengthening legal frameworks, policy implementation, and grassroots initiatives can further enhance women’s socio-economic status and ensure sustainable development.

 

Unit 1: Statistical Profile of Women in India

Question 1: Discuss the current statistical profile of women in India with reference to labour force participation, health, violence, and education.

Answer:

The statistical profile of women in India presents a mixed picture of progress and persistent challenges. Despite improvements in education, health, and political representation, gender disparities remain significant in areas like labour force participation, economic empowerment, and safety.

1. Women’s Labour Force Participation in India

  • As per the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS 2022-23), the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) of women in India is increasing but remains low compared to men.
  • Rural Women: The LFPR for rural women is higher due to agricultural and informal sector work.
  • Urban Women: Many women withdraw from employment due to domestic responsibilities and lack of flexible work options.
  • Gender Wage Gap: Women in India earn 20-30% less than men for similar work (ILO Report 2023).
  • Unpaid Work: Women spend 4 to 5 times more time on unpaid domestic and care work than men, as per Time Use Surveys.

2. Women’s Health and Maternal Mortality

  • Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): India has reduced its MMR to 97 per 100,000 live births (NFHS-5, 2019-21) but remains high compared to developed nations.
  • Anemia in Women: Over 57% of Indian women aged 15-49 suffer from anemia (NFHS-5).
  • Access to Reproductive Healthcare: While institutional deliveries have increased to 89%, access to contraceptives, prenatal care, and postnatal services remains inadequate in rural areas.
  • Malnutrition and Stunting: Malnutrition among girls leads to low birth weight babies and high infant mortality rates.

3. Gender-Based Violence in India

  • Crime Against Women: According to NCRB 2022, crimes against women increased by 15% in the last decade.
  • Domestic Violence: As per NFHS-5, around 30% of women report experiencing domestic violence at some point in their lives.
  • Sexual Harassment: Workplace harassment, cybercrime, and street harassment remain critical concerns despite laws like POSH Act (2013).
  • Human Trafficking: India is a major hub for human trafficking, forced labor, and child marriages, particularly in rural and tribal areas.

4. Women’s Education and Literacy

  • Female Literacy Rate: Female literacy has improved to 77% (Census 2011: 65%), but there is still a gap compared to men (84%).
  • School Dropout Rates: Higher dropout rates among girls are due to poverty, early marriage, and lack of sanitation facilities.
  • Higher Education: Women’s enrollment in STEM fields and professional courses is still lower than men.
  • Government Initiatives: Programs like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Ujjwala Yojana, and Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan aim to improve educational opportunities.

Conclusion

Despite progress in some areas, women in India still face economic, health, safety, and educational challenges. Government policies and social reforms must focus on empowerment, awareness, and gender-sensitive strategies to bridge the gap.

Question 2: Explain the role of state policies and programs in improving women’s conditions in India.

Answer:

The Indian government has implemented several policies and programs to improve women’s social, economic, and political status. These initiatives address key issues like education, employment, safety, and healthcare.

1. Economic Empowerment Policies

  • National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM): Promotes women’s entrepreneurship and self-help groups (SHGs).
  • MUDRA Yojana: Provides collateral-free loans to women entrepreneurs.
  • Stand-Up India: Supports women-led startups in agriculture and small businesses.

2. Health and Nutrition Programs

  • Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY): Provides financial assistance for institutional deliveries to reduce maternal mortality.
  • POSHAN Abhiyaan: Focuses on nutrition and anemia control among women and children.
  • Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY): Provides maternity benefits to pregnant women.

3. Education and Skill Development Programs

  • Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP): Aims to improve girls’ education and prevent gender discrimination.
  • Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan: Promotes girls’ education from primary to higher secondary levels.
  • Skill India Mission: Focuses on vocational training for women’s employability.

4. Legal Protections and Safety Policies

  • Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005): Protects women from domestic abuse.
  • Sexual Harassment at Workplace (POSH) Act (2013): Ensures safe working environments for women.
  • Nirbhaya Fund: Provides financial support for safety and anti-violence initiatives.

5. Conclusion

These policies have led to positive changes, but challenges remain in implementation, awareness, and accessibility. Strengthening policy enforcement and community engagement is essential for meaningful impact.

Question 3: What are the key reports on women’s development in India?

Answer:

Several national and international reports provide insights into the status of women in India. These reports help in policy formulation and social reforms.

1. National Reports

  • NFHS (National Family Health Survey): Provides data on women’s health, fertility, and nutrition.
  • PLFS (Periodic Labour Force Survey): Examines employment and workforce participation of women.
  • NCRB (National Crime Records Bureau) Reports: Tracks crimes against women, including domestic violence and trafficking.

2. International Reports

  • Global Gender Gap Report (WEF): India ranks 127th out of 146 countries in gender parity (2023).
  • Human Development Report (UNDP): Measures women’s access to education, healthcare, and jobs.
  • CEDAW Reports: United Nations reviews India’s progress on gender equality.

3. Conclusion

These reports highlight key areas for improvement and help in framing new policies for women’s development.

Question 4: How have UN Conferences influenced women’s policies in India?

Answer:

The United Nations (UN) Conferences on women’s rights have significantly shaped India’s gender policies and development programs.

1. Key UN Conferences and Their Impact

  • Mexico City Conference (1975): Recognized women’s rights as human rights.
  • Copenhagen Conference (1980): Addressed employment and education for women.
  • Beijing Declaration (1995): Led to gender budgeting, women’s reservations, and legal reforms in India.
  • UN SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals, 2015): Goal 5 focuses on gender equality and women’s empowerment.

2. Impact on Indian Policies

  • Inspired the POSH Act (2013) for workplace safety.
  • Strengthened laws on domestic violence and child marriage.
  • Encouraged women’s political representation through Panchayati Raj.

3. Conclusion

UN Conferences have played a crucial role in advancing women’s rights and policy changes in India.

Question 5: What are the major challenges in implementing women’s welfare programs in India?

Answer:

Despite progressive policies and schemes, implementation faces several barriers.

1. Lack of Awareness

  • Many women, especially in rural areas, are unaware of government schemes.

2. Bureaucratic Hurdles

  • Delays in fund allocation and corruption hinder program success.

3. Social and Cultural Barriers

  • Patriarchy and gender discrimination limit women’s access to rights.

4. Low Female Workforce Participation

  • Rigid gender roles prevent economic independence.

Conclusion

Strengthening implementation, awareness campaigns, and community participation is key to women’s empowerment in India.

 

 

 

Unit II: Perspectives on Development & Women in Politics

Question 1: Discuss the major perspectives on women’s development—WID, WAD, and GAD.

Answer:

Women’s development has been analyzed through various theoretical perspectives that address gender disparities in social, economic, and political spheres. Three key frameworks—Women in Development (WID), Women and Development (WAD), and Gender and Development (GAD)—have shaped policies and academic discourse on gender equality.

1. Women in Development (WID) Approach

  • Origin: Emerged in the 1970s as part of modernization theories, promoted by organizations like the World Bank and USAID.
  • Key Idea: Focused on integrating women into the existing economic development process without questioning structural inequalities.
  • Policies and Programs:
    • Encouraged women’s participation in labor markets.
    • Promoted female education and skill development.
    • Introduced microfinance and self-employment schemes.
  • Criticism:
    • Treated women as a homogeneous group, ignoring intersectionality.
    • Did not challenge patriarchal structures that perpetuate gender discrimination.

2. Women and Development (WAD) Approach

  • Origin: Emerged in the late 1970s as a critique of WID, influenced by Marxist and dependency theories.
  • Key Idea: Emphasized that women’s oppression is linked to global capitalist structures and economic dependence.
  • Policies and Programs:
    • Advocated for collective action and women’s participation in self-sustaining economies.
    • Focused on land rights, wage parity, and social justice.
  • Criticism:
    • Overemphasized economic structures, ignoring cultural and social dimensions of gender inequality.
    • Did not adequately address women’s agency and empowerment at the individual level.

3. Gender and Development (GAD) Approach

  • Origin: Developed in the 1980s, influenced by feminist theories and critical gender studies.
  • Key Idea: Shifted focus from women alone to gender relations, recognizing that both men and women are shaped by societal structures.
  • Policies and Programs:
    • Addressed structural inequalities in education, health, and political participation.
    • Emphasized women’s empowerment, agency, and intersectionality.
  • Criticism:
    • Implementation has been inconsistent, and gender-sensitive policies often lack enforcement.
    • Requires long-term societal transformation, which is slow to achieve.

Conclusion

Each framework has contributed to advancing gender equality, but GAD is considered the most holistic as it focuses on transforming gender relations rather than simply integrating women into development.

Question 2: Explain the concept of Sustainable Development and its impact on women.

Answer:

Sustainable development is a developmental approach that seeks to balance economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity. Women play a critical role in sustainable development, particularly in areas like environmental conservation, health, and economic resilience.

1. Definition of Sustainable Development

  • Introduced by the Brundtland Commission (1987) as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
  • Key Pillars:
    • Economic sustainability (fair distribution of resources).
    • Social sustainability (gender equality and human rights).
    • Environmental sustainability (climate change mitigation, resource conservation).

2. Women’s Role in Sustainable Development

  • Agriculture and Food Security:
    • Women constitute 43% of the agricultural workforce globally.
    • They play a key role in sustainable farming, biodiversity conservation, and water management.
  • Climate Change and Environmental Conservation:
    • Women are disproportionately affected by climate change-related disasters (e.g., floods, droughts).
    • Women-led eco-friendly businesses and movements like Chipko Movement in India highlight their role in conservation.
  • Economic Empowerment and Green Economy:
    • Women entrepreneurs drive sustainable enterprises, such as organic farming and renewable energy ventures.
    • Equal access to financial resources and land ownership can accelerate sustainable development.
  • Health and Education:
    • Maternal health and reproductive rights are crucial for population control and sustainability.
    • Educating women leads to lower birth rates, better child nutrition, and improved community well-being.

3. Challenges in Achieving Gender-Responsive Sustainability

  • Lack of representation in decision-making: Women hold only 26% of parliamentary seats worldwide.
  • Gendered impacts of resource depletion: Women in rural areas walk long distances for water and firewood.
  • Barriers to economic participation: Women’s access to credit, land, and technology is limited.

Conclusion

Sustainable development cannot be achieved without gender equality. Policies must focus on empowering women through education, economic opportunities, and political representation to create a just and sustainable future.

Question 3: Analyze the relationship between women, work, and livelihood in the context of development.

Answer:

Women’s economic participation is a key driver of development, yet they face significant barriers to employment, equal wages, and workplace rights.

1. Gender Disparities in Work and Livelihood

  • Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): In India, only 25% of women are part of the workforce compared to 75% of men.
  • Wage Gap: Women earn 20-30% less than men for the same work.
  • Informal Sector: 90% of working women in India are engaged in informal employment with no social security.

2. Challenges in Women’s Economic Participation

  • Unpaid Domestic Work: Women spend 6 hours/day on unpaid care work, limiting job opportunities.
  • Workplace Discrimination: Glass ceiling, sexual harassment, and lack of maternity benefits hinder women’s careers.
  • Limited Access to Resources: Only 15% of landowners in India are women, restricting financial independence.

3. Government Initiatives for Women’s Economic Empowerment

  • Self-Help Groups (SHGs): Programs like Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Antyodaya Yojana (DAY-NRLM) promote women-led businesses.
  • MUDRA Scheme: Provides micro-loans to women entrepreneurs.
  • Mahila E-Haat: A digital platform for women artisans and entrepreneurs.

Conclusion

Ensuring women’s economic empowerment through equal wages, legal protections, and financial inclusion is essential for sustainable development.

Question 4: Discuss the role of women in politics, with a special focus on Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).

Answer:

Women’s political participation is essential for inclusive governance and gender-sensitive policymaking. In India, the Panchayati Raj system has played a crucial role in promoting grassroots democracy.

1. Constitutional Provisions for Women in PRIs

  • 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (1992):
    • Mandates 33% reservation for women in Panchayats.
    • Encourages women’s leadership in local governance.
  • Impact of Reservation:
    • Over 1.4 million women serve as elected representatives in PRIs.
    • In states like Bihar and Rajasthan, reservations have been increased to 50%.

2. Challenges Faced by Women in Panchayats

  • Patriarchal Control: Women are often proxies for male family members (Sarpanch Pati system).
  • Lack of Education and Training: Many women lack administrative experience.
  • Political Violence: Women in politics face threats and discrimination.

3. Success Stories of Women Leaders in Panchayats

  • Chhavi Rajawat (Rajasthan): India’s first MBA Sarpanch who transformed her village.
  • Rajni Devi (Haryana): Implemented women-friendly policies at the Panchayat level.

Conclusion

Strengthening women’s leadership in PRIs through education, capacity-building, and legal protection will ensure inclusive governance and social progress.

 

 

 

Unit III: Women and Law – Major Constitutional Provisions, Laws, NGOs, and Micro-Credit Groups

Question 1: Discuss the major constitutional provisions in India for women’s rights and empowerment.

Answer:

The Indian Constitution provides a strong legal foundation for women’s rights, equality, and empowerment. Several provisions have been incorporated to ensure gender justice, protection, and social upliftment of women in India.

1. Fundamental Rights for Women

  • Article 14: Ensures equality before the law and prohibits gender-based discrimination.
  • Article 15(1): Prohibits the state from discriminating on the basis of gender, caste, religion, or race.
  • Article 15(3): Empowers the state to make special provisions for women and children, recognizing their historical disadvantages.
  • Article 16: Guarantees equal opportunities in public employment, ensuring no discrimination based on gender.

2. Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) and Women’s Rights

  • Article 39(a): Promotes equal rights for both men and women in securing adequate means of livelihood.
  • Article 39(d): Ensures equal pay for equal work for both genders.
  • Article 42: Mandates the state to provide maternity relief and secure humane working conditions for women.
  • Article 46: Directs the state to promote the educational and economic interests of weaker sections, including women.

3. Fundamental Duties and Women’s Empowerment

  • Article 51A(e): Encourages citizens to renounce practices derogatory to women’s dignity, such as dowry and domestic violence.

4. Political Empowerment through Panchayati Raj

  • 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1992): Reserved 33% of seats for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions and Urban Local Bodies, enhancing their political participation.

Conclusion

These constitutional provisions have laid the legal framework for gender equality and women’s empowerment in India. However, effective implementation remains a challenge due to patriarchal structures, lack of awareness, and enforcement issues.

Question 2: Explain key laws enacted in India to protect women’s rights and prevent gender-based violence.

Answer:

India has enacted several laws to address gender-based violence, workplace discrimination, and social injustices faced by women. These laws aim to protect, empower, and provide justice to women across different spheres of life.

1. Protection from Domestic Violence

  • The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005):
    • Recognizes physical, emotional, sexual, verbal, and economic abuse.
    • Provides for protection orders, residence orders, and monetary relief.
    • Empowers magistrates to pass emergency orders for women’s safety.

2. Protection against Sexual Harassment

  • The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act (2013):
    • Defines quid pro quo harassment and hostile work environments.
    • Mandates setting up of Internal Complaints Committees (ICCs) in workplaces.
    • Includes provisions for punishment, compensation, and protection from retaliation.

3. Laws against Rape and Sexual Offenses

  • Section 375 & 376 IPC (Indian Penal Code): Defines rape and prescribes stringent punishment.
  • The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (2013):
    • Introduced stricter punishment for rape, acid attacks, and stalking.
    • Recognized marital rape of minors as an offense.

4. Laws against Dowry and Cruelty

  • The Dowry Prohibition Act (1961):
    • Criminalizes giving and receiving dowry.
    • Empowers courts to take action against offenders.
  • Section 498A IPC: Provides legal protection against cruelty by husbands and in-laws.

5. Women’s Property and Inheritance Rights

  • The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act (2005):
    • Grants equal inheritance rights to daughters in parental property.
    • Ensures women have the same rights as sons in ancestral property.

Conclusion

Despite the presence of these laws, challenges remain in implementation, legal awareness, and social acceptance. Ensuring effective enforcement and increasing women’s legal literacy is crucial for meaningful gender justice.

Question 3: Analyze the role of NGOs in women’s empowerment and social justice in India.

Answer:

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) play a crucial role in advocating women’s rights, supporting victims of violence, and enabling socio-economic empowerment. They bridge the gap between government policies and grassroots implementation.

1. Advocacy and Legal Aid

  • NGOs like National Commission for Women (NCW) and Majlis Legal Centre provide legal assistance to women facing domestic violence, workplace harassment, and property disputes.
  • Organizations like Swayam and Snehi offer counseling and psychological support for trauma victims.

2. Economic and Educational Empowerment

  • NGOs like SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association) focus on financial literacy, self-employment, and microfinance for women entrepreneurs.
  • Pratham and Nanhi Kali work on education initiatives for underprivileged girls, ensuring access to schools and reducing dropout rates.

3. Campaigns Against Gender-Based Violence

  • Jagori and Sayfty conduct awareness campaigns on domestic violence, cyber harassment, and sexual violence.
  • Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch monitor gender-based human rights violations.

4. Women’s Health and Safety

  • NGOs like Population Foundation of India (PFI) promote maternal health, reproductive rights, and family planning awareness.
  • Acid Survivors Trust International works for rehabilitation of acid attack victims.

Conclusion

NGOs act as change agents by providing legal, financial, psychological, and social support to women. Their role is indispensable in ensuring grassroots gender justice and women’s rights advocacy.

Question 4: What is the significance of Micro-Credit Groups in empowering women economically?

Answer:

Micro-Credit Groups or Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged as powerful tools for women’s economic empowerment, particularly in rural India. These groups provide small loans, financial training, and collective bargaining power.

1. Financial Inclusion and Independence

  • Low-interest loans allow women to start small businesses or engage in self-employment.
  • Savings and credit facilities reduce dependence on exploitative moneylenders.

2. Women Entrepreneurship and Self-Reliance

  • Encourages women to engage in agriculture, handicrafts, tailoring, and retail businesses.
  • Success stories like Lijjat Papad and Amul’s Women Dairy Cooperatives highlight women-led entrepreneurship.

3. Social and Community Empowerment

  • Group-based lending fosters solidarity and social security.
  • SHGs provide leadership opportunities and challenge patriarchal structures.

4. Government Initiatives Supporting Micro-Credit

  • Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK): Provides microfinance to women’s groups and SHGs.
  • Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana: Supports SHGs under National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM).

Conclusion

Micro-Credit Groups provide economic stability, social confidence, and decision-making power to women. By promoting financial inclusion and self-sufficiency, they contribute to gender equity and poverty reduction.

 

 

 

 

Notes All

Sociology Notes

Psychology Notes

Hindi Notes

English Notes

Geography Notes

Economics Notes

Political Science Notes

History Notes

Commerce Notes

NOTES

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