Environmental Studies -

Environmental Studies

Dr. Afroz Eqbal

Preface

While writing these lines of the preamble, I am feeling very happy, because there is no lack of books in the market on sociology; But when you read this book, you will feel yourself why this book is different from other books. The objective of the author in the book is different theories functions, Environmental Studies

, influences, factors and different processes. To make them well-acquainted, appropriate examples are also given for the purpose of explaining these principles and procedures. Language and style are adopted in such a way that the initial knowledge of the subject can reach the students from the concept. The main focus is the same. It has been kept so that the students can understand the subject matter properly. Keeping in mind the convenience of the students, the subject has been given in simple language. The titles are given in Italian words as per the requirement. In the end, the objective questions are given. The book will be useful not only for university level readers but also for the students of Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) and Public Service Commission (PCS) of various states, it is my belief. How far this effort is successful is in the hand of the intensive readers. Your suggestions to improve it further are welcome.

Dr. Afroz Iqbal

Environmental Studies

‘Nature’ and Society
ecology and environment
changing human-environment relationship
Global warming
due to global warming
effects of global warming
Climate change
increase in global temperature
sea level rise
rain change
Effects on Humans and Human Health
effect of global warming on agriculture
loss of ecosystems and biodiversity
ecology and ecosystem
environmental sociology
Global warming
acid rain
loss of biodiversity
ozone layer depletion
ozone layer and its depletion
Chemicals Involved in the Production and Depletion of Ozone
Main Effects of Ozone Depletion
Mitigation measures to reduce ozone depletion.
impact on biodiversity
conservation of biodiversity and
Global Initiative for Biodiversity Conservation
due to environmental destruction
solving environmental problems
Rise of environmental consciousness and movements
Social construction of environmental problems
Theoretical Approaches to Environmental Sociology
classical sociological tradition
Caton and Dunlop’s contribution
risk theory
ecological modernization theory
Sustainable Development, Policies and Programs
continuous development
Sustainable Development: Historical Perspective
environmental Law
socio-cultural sustainability
Ecology, Development and Women.
socio-cultural sustainability
Population Growth and Sustainable Development
Urbanization and Sustainable Development
Industrial Growth and Sustainable Development
Global Warming: Threat to Sustainable Development
military conflict and nuclear war
Environment and Development Projects
Biotechnology: A Way To Sustainable Development

Organisms and their environment

Ecology and environmental science are often seen as synonyms but ecology is one of the subjects within the much wider field of environmental science. Environmental issues affect every part of our lives and environmental science is very important to learn how the Earth works, how we are affecting its life support systems, and how we can reduce our environmental impact. Are?

We know about some of the relationships between organisms and their environment. For example, pollution can harm the environment and therefore living organisms. Bacteria and fungi are organisms that cause disease in other living things. Organisms and their environments interact in many ways. The phrase, “everything is connected to everything,” describes the relationship between organisms and their environments.

Environmental science can be defined as the study of the earth, air, water and living organisms and the ways in which they are related to each other. In a broad sense, it is the science of the complex interactions that occur within and between terrestrial, atmospheric, aquatic and living environments. This interrelationship is an important aspect in the study of environmental science. Environmental science has developed largely from the study of living organisms in their natural habitats. This discipline used to be called natural history, and is now called ecology.

Obviously, this society-environment interaction which is anthropocentric (human-centred) in nature has led to what are known as contemporary global environmental changes (Verdu 2010) and they are manifested in the following: depletion of the ozone layer, global warming and climate change. The concept climate change refers to any change in climate resulting from both natural variability and anthropogenic factors. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (1992) in its Article 1 defines climate change as ‘climate change’ that is directly or indirectly attributable to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere And what is in addition to this.

Natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” (Onuoha 2008). These changes in global climate have both environmental and social implications for human society. To corroborate this point, Radclift and Woodgate (2010) claim that ‘the notion of an environmental singularity has been reinforced in recent years as a result of the widespread attention to global environmental change and global warming; These events lead to the final manifestation of the biophysical environment as an integral global biospheric and atmospheric system, the degradation of which will have consequences for all people on Earth. The environmental effects of climate change include the melting of glaciers and a rise in sea level that leads to perennial flooding; draft; loss of biodiversity; desertification; Deforestation etc. In turn, the social consequences of these climate change-related environmental problems include displacement of human populations by floods and droughts, famine, hunger and migration, health epidemics, loss of economic livelihoods, etc. Scarcity of resources such as water and land scarcity leads to food insecurity and forced migration with the potential for resource conflict between groups. Loss of biodiversity has detrimental effects on cultural knowledge among local groups/societies etc

We live in different types of environment on the earth. The environment with which every living organism constantly interacts and to which it is perfectly adapted is the natural environment of the living organism. The term natural environment brings to mind the broad aspects of the landscape such as water, soil, mountains, deserts, etc.

can be described by factors such as moisture, temperature, soil texture and biological influences. We can say that environment is the sum total of living and non-living components, influences and events surrounding the organism.

The environmental issues and concerns that attract human societies around the world are linked to the ecological notion of resources.

The major issues of concern are the exploration, gathering, depletion and management of natural resources. There is a definite measure of impact on the ecological balance of developmental activities aimed at the welfare of human beings and their living patterns, that is, micro-organisms, plants and animals. Ecological paradigm is being used to build ecology to solve complex global environmental problems such as pollution, resource depletion, climate change, etc. A large number of relationships and interactions exist between the environment and the living organisms in nature and the essence of ecology lies in a totality. Attitude towards the subject. However, to understand the whole complex of ecology, let us try to understand its components.

Environment includes both living and non-living parts. The study of the interrelationships between living and non-living parts of the environment is

matter of ecology. Ecologists study living organisms and the interactions between organisms and their non-living environments. Understanding these interrelationships and interactions can aid in the development of useful conservation measures.

environment and society

What is the relationship between ‘nature’ and society? How have scholars attempted to investigate and theorize the environment-society relationship? If and how has this relationship changed over time, in what ways? Why did this change happen? Are these changes driven by human activity or ecological/environmental limits? What about the effects of the changing human-environment relationship? How have we responded to these changes? To answer these questions, which are at the core of this course on ecology, environment and society, we need a basic familiarity with some key concepts that allow us to recognize the coupled, and dynamic nature of humans and ecological/environmental systems. can help to do. The following sections do precisely this task by presenting the key concepts, while also opening up to some extent their connections and complexities.

ecology and environment

The term ecology was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, a German scientist who described it as the scientific study of the interactions between living organisms and their environment. But its foundation was probably laid much earlier in 1789 when the British scholar Gilbert White, in his book The Natural History of Selborne, treated plants and animals not as independent individuals, but as part of a community of living organisms, who interacted with other living beings. Man and the Environment (in May and McLeon 2007:1).

However, unlike natural history, ecology is the study of life and not just organisms. It is concerned with learning about life processes that explain interactions and adaptations; the flow of energy and materials through living communities; the evolution of ecosystems, and the distribution and abundance of biodiversity in the context of the environment (for the scope of ecology, see Begon et al. 2006).

These interactions can be of many different types – from simple to highly complex – between one organism and another, between one or more organisms and their physical environment, etc.; From simple organisms like bacteria to diverse plants, animals, birds and humans in forest areas. For example; Food-webs are networks that reflect complex and multi-scalar prey–predator or consumer–resource relationships (see Begon et al. 2006). With such complex networks existing between different organisms and their environment, it is not surprising that the effects of these interactions have an impact on the entire ecosystem.

By ecosystem we refer to the web of relationships between organisms, including humans, at various levels of organization (ibid). Hence, ecology has also been defined as “the study of the relationship between organisms and their environment, the “economy” (or livelihoods) of the Earth and the totality of its life forms (Sutton and Anderson 2010: 200).

However, the environment, as such, refers to an organism’s surroundings including other organisms and the physical world, and is known to have two types of components (Cormondi 1996): ‘biotic’ which includes living factors of biological origin such as genes , cells, organisms of the same or different species; and ‘abiotic’ which includes inorganic materials and physical aspects such as non-living factors such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, temperature, light, climate, rainfall etc.

However, it is understood that both the biotic and abiotic components of the environment interact and influence each other. each other; Non-living factors can affect living ones. For example; Lack of rainfall leads to poor vegetation which in turn affects the wildlife dependent on it for food and habitat; Or consider how leaves in extremely harsh climates get dislodged and fall to the ground, eventually decomposing and becoming part of the soil. That is to say, changes in one ecological or environmental factor affect the entire ecosystem.

Might affect the dynamic position.

If ecologists have characterized the environment as constituting a “web of interrelatedness of dependence and reciprocity”, and of various other living beings and flora, sociologists have characterized the environment as “the context that provides the conditions for existence”. as described. (Cudworth 2003:2). In addition to these concepts, sociologists have also expanded the definition of environment to include the ‘built environment’ of human creation such as a city or slum or a national park.

These interact with human activities over time, with the man-made environment functioning as an interrelated whole; Although constructed for human purposes, they affect the overall environment which affects the environmental context (see Bartuska 2007). From this perspective, the natural world, the man-made world a

And all consider the social world of human relations as environment. The concept of environment thus extends from the physical or natural environment to the cultural environment of human societies.

Whereas ecologists highlight the idea of ecological equilibrium or balance of nature to describe the self-restorative tendency of ecological systems – where ecosystems maintain stability by returning to some stable point after each disturbance through self-correction mechanisms. maintain (for a detailed discussion, see Rode 2005). This idea of nature always striving for permanent stability when left alone is currently considered obsolete, given the many evidences of variation in nature with and without human intervention (see Rickleffs 2001, Road 2005). However, “the balance of nature is not the status quo; It is fluid, always changing, in a constant state of adjustment. Man is also a part of this balance. sometimes there is a balance

his favor; Sometimes – and often through his own activities – it is transferred to his detriment,” as Rachel Carson (1962: 146) pointed out five decades ago. Therefore, examining human-environment interactions, It becomes essential to understand the conditions for which we live, and how we can influence them. This includes the human ability to overcome ecological destruction, as well as the human ability to build and restore.

changing human-environment relationship

Ecologists illuminate our understanding of life as the expression of a complex web of interactions between different organisms and their physical environment, including the complex interdependencies between people and the environment. Studies on evolution, especially Charles Darwin’s work on the origin of species and Herbert Spencer’s concept of ‘survival of the fittest’ have helped us understand the process of differentiation and expansion in the natural environment. The history of human society is also known to show a similar process of specialization, organization and expansion (see Durkheim’s work on the division of labor in society). The human species is not outside nature, it thrives within it; Therefore it becomes important to investigate the nature of human-environment interactions and their effects.

Both human society and the environment can be studied as systems where systems refer to a set of interacting or independent parts that maintain their existence and functions through the interactions of their parts. Berkus et al. (2003) define ecosystems as self-regulating communities of organisms that interact with each other and with their environment; Social systems deal with human-led governance (access to resources and property rights), with world-views defining human knowledge, ethics and use of natural resources and human-nature relations; Ultimately, social-ecological systems refer to an integrated concept of human-nature, expressing the interconnected nature of social systems and ecosystems.

Ecosystems as well as social systems are both dynamic systems, which undergo changes over time. Practically no ecosystem is untouched by people, and there is no person who does not need or benefit from an ecosystem.

When society itself has changed, can the human-nature relationship remain the same?

By understanding the changing nature of society, we can gain important information about the changing society-environment relationship. For example, Roberts (1998) described how humans in Europe, once completely dependent on the natural environment through agricultural subsistence, advanced from hunter-gatherers to a technological and industrial society over the course of about 10,000 years .

During this process, he argued, humans’ relationship with their environment became increasingly heterogeneous, unequal: initially humans depended on the environment, being ‘part’ of it, but with the development of agriculture they replaced it to some extent. started controlling till; And as the demand for natural resources increased, the exploitation of their own environment also increased. Similarly, Crosby (1986), by including the role and treatment of the natural world and examining the associated ecological devastation, focuses on the fifteenth century

provided a historical explanation of European expansion from the late 1900s onwards, a process he called ‘ecological imperialism’. In fact, in the last 300 years as human societies ‘progressed’ from pastoral communities to agriculture and then to modern societies,

The nature and scale of human impact on the environment has also changed from local to global changes, with visible changes to the Earth’s surface and resources also affecting material and energy flows (see, Gowdy 2006). Even as environmental change occurs naturally, there can hardly be any doubt about the important role of human agency in driving it (ibid).

Human population has grown both in size and scale of its ambition. The entire human population during the early 1800s was approximately one billion; It is expected to cross nine billion by 2050. this is

A tremendous development, but one that depends heavily on the ecosystem and the services provided to meet the rapidly growing demands of a rapidly growing human population. These have put considerable pressure on the Earth’s carrying capacity, which refers to the maximum number of organisms that the Earth can support with its existing resources without exhausting them (see, Sayre 2008). However, population growth is not the only factor adding to the ecological footprint, a term coined by William Rees in 1992 to describe human demands on the environment and resources often compared to the ecological capacity to regenerate (see Wackernagel and Rees 1996). ). There are many other factors that shape human behavior towards the environment; These factors are inherent in the society itself.

For example; Within technological and industrializing societies we see increased consumption and materialism; increased individualism and competition; growing inequality and marginalisation, inequality in terms of access to technology and capital; and the increasing collective impact of human activities on nature. As a result, the nature of the human-environment relationship is becoming increasingly heterogeneous and confrontational.

What will be the implications of human impact on nature?

Many environmental problems are arising due to the overall interconnectedness of the components of the global natural environment (Jackson and Jackson 2000): a) Human impact on natural systems such as interference with natural systems or loss of habitat or destruction of species or organisms eg. overfishing or threats to the Sundarbans forests and Majuli islands, both biodiversity hotspots; b) the impact on human health and well-being due to human-induced changes in natural conditions, for example increasing respiratory problems due to increased air toxicity in Delhi; c) Human impact on natural landscapes – considered problematic in more developed countries that value natural areas that are still ‘untouched’.

In fact, due to the unprecedented rate of human activity and the resulting stress on the natural environment, we are already witnessing an ecological crisis. This includes issues of rapidly degrading ecosystems (according to the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment-2005, approximately 60% of Earth’s ecosystems are degraded); Global warming and climate change are expected to become irreversible soon. It is already known that if environmental conditions change drastically, ecosystems can undergo regime change i.e. they can suddenly switch to another regime (alternative state) that can no longer provide ecosystem services i.e. benefits essential to human well-being; These are also resilient so that loss of ecosystem function due to regime change may be irreversible (see Folke et al., 2004). For example; A shift from dry land to savanna in Africa due to the encroachment of shrubs and the implications for animal husbandry (see Roques et al 2001). Other examples include lakes (see Carpenter & Keen 2003), coastal ecosystems (Jackson, et al. 2001), coral reefs (Bellwood et al. 2004, Haugh-Guldberg et al. 2007), and even the polar regions of the Atlantic. (see) , Green et al. 2008).

How do we respond to such dangerous impacts on socio-ecological systems?

Malthus (1789) warned mankind against the effects of uncontrolled population growth long enough to heed the impending crisis. After 1960 when the human population had already increased massively, resources were showing signs of fatigue, environmental changes were being recorded – came a series of proposals. These include: an emphasis on human ingenuity to find scientific and technological solutions (see, Boserup 1965, 1976), but also preventing the exhaustion of common resources due to indiscriminate human use, which is usually accomplished by rethinking natural resource management and increasing access referred to as the ‘tragedy of the commons’. and control (see, Hardin 1968).

The critique of private resource regimes found effective examples of collective management (Ostrom 1990), leading to a framework of social-ecological systems or SES (Ostrom 2009), which addresses complex social-ecological problems and diverse human-nature interactions. regarded as manifestations of

The unprecedented impact of human activity on the natural environment (see Gaudí 2006), which has been at the heart of human ecology (see Martin 2001), has led to human

Given the interactive nature, it also triggered diverse views on how environmental problems can be investigated and responded to. and ecosystem. For example; Deep ecology proposed the idea that nature is sacred and should not be viewed as a resource for human exploitation, keeping nature free from any form of human activity due to a deep empathy for other life forms (see, Ness 1989). In contrast, the social ecological approach highlights the complex relationship between nature and human society, and the fact that all ecological/environmental problems are ultimately and fundamentally social in nature (see Bookchin 1993) due to deep-seated problems. exposed them.

of society and not just human activity or overpopulation; Solving environmental problems requires a fundamental change in society, that is, within people, in their actions and attitudes. Still others took up cultural ecology, which examined the role and influence of culture in manifesting environmental problems and their solutions, including human adaptation to a varied and changing environment (see Steward 1972, Sutton and Anderson 2010). . Furthermore, political ecology uncovered the political and economic roots of environmental problems.

For example, land degradation in less developed countries as a product of their political economy (see, Blackie 1987), yet others, combined cultural and political ecology, to examine the intersecting domains of culture, knowledge, power and nature. (see Escobar 1998, 1999), thus clarifying environmental issues not only as socio-political issues, but also as matters of justice.

These different, and growing, schools of thought have expanded our knowledge of the nature of ecological/environmental issues and community and institutional responses to them. By linking the ecological sciences with the social sciences in its analyses, it questions and exposes what makes our societies and environments vulnerable, by examining the risks faced by social-ecological systems and their vulnerability and resilience.

risk and vulnerability

By risk, we mean a potential hazard or activity that can cause harm or harm. For example, a natural disaster like the recent earthquake in Nepal (April 2015) caused loss of both human life (and property) and the environment around them. Similarly, the Chernobyl nuclear disaster

Causing both immediate as well as permanent damage to human and environmental health. Vulnerability is susceptibility to risk. It indicates the extent to which an organism, environment or a system is likely to be harmed by exposure. The concepts of risk and vulnerability apply to both ecosystems and human systems.

Sociologist Anthony Giddens (1999) classified risks into two types – external risks and manufactured risks: External risks are non-human such as earthquakes, floods, storms, volcanoes etc., which always present a risk to human society. Manufactured risks are themselves man-made such as nuclear reactors, large dams, chemicals such as pesticides, and diseases such as silicosis. These are the products of the process of modernization of human society; As a result of increasing the human role in production as well as reducing these risks (Ibid).

An ecosystem’s vulnerability represents its susceptibility to stresses that may disturb its ecological balance. For example it can be induced by natural stress; Salinity and tidal movement within an intertidal wetland represent major natural stresses that cause damage to plants, mangroves, etc. Or, it could be human-induced stressors such as the observed changes in nutrient cycling that result in eutrophication of lakes, damaging water quality.

The interconnected biophysical components within an ecosystem further increase its vulnerability; It also makes it difficult to identify whether environmental change was caused by human or natural processes.

How do we explain vulnerability in the context of dynamic, interacting natural and social systems with mutually constituted and embedded societies and destructive agents as processes that develop over time? Hilhorstrand Bankoff (2004) explained vulnerability as a condition of deep-seated social relationships and processes. It is not just the frequency, frequency and intensity of environmental events; rather it is also a situation arising out of historical and structural factors (ibid). Some populations may be more vulnerable than others due to the historical consequences of political, economic and social processes. For example, populations in the Sahel faced famine, which resulted from climate change as well as conditions of dependency created by colonialism and cash-cropping (Copans1975, cited in Hillhorst and Bankoff 2004).

of vulnerability incident

time, people’s location, and other social characteristics such as gender, age, poverty, power, etc. It is also about public perceptions and knowledge as they shape human behaviour. It is the product of past factors, but also a present condition that turns a hazard into a disaster, and determines whether people may suffer the effects or become victims of its consequences (Benckoff et al 2004, Pelling 2003). watch too).

For example, consider the case of the Bhopal gas disaster of 1984. This was the result of a combination of factors including technical failure, greedy and harsh management at the Carbide Pesticides plant

Furthermore, political ecology uncovered the political and economic roots of environmental problems. For example, land degradation in less developed countries as a product of their political economy (see, Blackie 1987), yet others, combined cultural and political ecology, to examine the intersecting domains of culture, knowledge, power and nature. (see Escobar 1998, 1999), thus clarifying environmental issues not only as socio-political issues, but also as matters of justice.

risk and vulnerability

In terms of social systems, Pelling (2003: 5) describes vulnerability as—physical vulnerability that relates to the built environment, social vulnerability that “is experienced by people and their social, economic and political systems”, and human Vulnerability stems from the physical. and social vulnerability. How do we explain vulnerability in the context of dynamic, interacting natural and social systems with mutually constituted and embedded societies and destructive agents as processes that develop over time? Hilhorstrand Bankoff (2004) explained vulnerability as a condition of deep-seated social relationships and processes. It is not just the frequency, frequency and intensity of environmental events; rather it is also a situation arising out of historical and structural factors (ibid). Some populations may be more vulnerable than others due to the historical consequences of political, economic and social processes. For example, populations in the Sahel faced famine, which resulted from climate change as well as conditions of dependency created by colonialism and cash-cropping (Copans1975, cited in Hillhorst and Bankoff 2004).

Vulnerability is related to the time of event, location of people, and other social characteristics such as gender, age, poverty, power, etc.

is in It is also about public perceptions and knowledge as they shape human behaviour. It is the product of past factors, but also a present condition that turns a hazard into a disaster, and determines whether people may suffer the effects or become victims of its consequences (Benckoff et al 2004, Pelling 2003). watch too). For example, consider the case of the Bhopal gas disaster of 1984. This was the result of a combination of factors including technical failure, greedy and harsh management at the Carbide Pesticides plant

The factory’s poor location next to a densely populated, but poor and largely illiterate neighborhood. Water contamination spreading from a factory to a neighborhood in Bhopal provides another example of how a known risk can become a disaster, affecting those already affected, due to people’s continued vulnerability and

Government’s continued failure to hold polluters accountable in the context of an uneven world politics/economy.

With the ongoing naturally occurring environmental change along with the processes of social changes, continuous expansion of human activities and consequent impacts on nature, the nature of risks and vulnerabilities of people has also changed. Elaborating on this, Ulrich Beck (1992) asserts that we are faced with a risk society – a vastly altered version of the pre-modernization society. The world of globalization has not only connected people but also risks and threats; Risks are no longer localized in nature and vulnerabilities are harder to predict; Hence, the increasing difficulty in predicting or preventing disasters. Disasters, the cause of human and environmental loss, are a function of both hazard events and changing vulnerability and resilience; These are both shaped and shaped by evolution (see Collins 2009).

Resilience Thinking – A Step Towards Sustainability

To protect and rebuild communities and institutions on an increasingly coupled human-environmental system (Liu et al. 2007), one needs to embrace ideas of resilience and sustainability, concepts stemming from the realization that these systems naturally are dynamic and interrelated.

In 1987 the Brundtland Commission emphasized the concept of sustainability, which refers to the ability of a process or human activity to meet the needs of the present generation while protecting the environment and its resources for future generations. Therefore, sustainable activities are those that do not destroy or damage the natural environment or natural resources. Sustainable development seeks to meet the immediate interests of people without compromising the interests of future generations. High resilience and low vulnerability are measures of sustainability. Vulnerability emerges when resilience is lost (Holling 1995).

Resilience refers to the ability of an organism to resist or recover from adverse conditions, as well as the ability of an ecosystem to absorb shocks/disturbances, while still maintaining its original elements or relationships, and to withstand disturbance. returns to its normal state after (Walker et al 2004).

Stability is a measure of the speed with which a system returns to a state of equilibrium or equilibrium after a disturbance has been absorbed. Systems with high resilience but low stability may undergo deep and frequent changes but still continue to function while systems with high stability but low resilience may show little change during a disturbance but then collapse suddenly. However, system recovery, recovery speed is not more important.

Over time, humans, especially after the Industrial Revolution, have reduced the ability of ecosystems to cope with change through a combination of factors (Folke et al. 2003): the removal of functional groups of species and their response diversity, such as loss of entire trophic levels (top-down effects), emissions of waste and pollutants (bottom-up effects) and impacts on ecosystems through climate change, and the magnitude, frequency, and duration of disturbances Changes in the period to which the biota is adapted (same) . This human-induced loss of resilience increases the vulnerability of ecosystems.

Flexibility is understood in many terms. Physical resilience refers to risk-resistant or adaptive systems that maintain their structure and processes when disturbed. ecological

Resilience is understood as the amount of change that an ecosystem can undergo and remain in the same regime while maintaining the same structure, functions and feedbacks (see, Holling 1973); According to Seixas and Berkus (2003: 272): “The resilience of an ecosystem is its ability to absorb disturbance while maintaining its behavioral processes and structure. It has the ability to buffer disturbance, self-organize, and learn and adapt.” Can be defined as the ability to adapt to changing contexts.

These definitions can be extended to social systems to conceptualize social resilience. According to Edgar (2000), social resilience is defined at the level of communities rather than individuals; It is concerned with the social capital of societies and communities; is institutionally determined; and through indicators such as institutional change and economic structure and demographic change.

Through the body, and looking at the positive and negative aspects of social exclusion, marginalization and social capital can be examined. An example of social flexibility can be found in Commons Dependent P

Astronomical and nomadic communities.

During the colonial period, these communities and their practices were considered with a socio-evolutionary lens and were referred to as ‘vanishing tribes’. However, these communities have shown a remarkable capacity to adapt to changing conditions and absorb ecological stress (Kavoori 2005).

The relationship between social and ecological resilience is most clearly visible in resource-dependent communities (communities that rely primarily on their physical environment and resources for livelihoods), where they are more vulnerable to environmental change and external stressors in both forms and social, economic, and social contexts. exposed to shocks. Political change/disturbance (Ibid). For example, Indian agriculture is reported to show different vulnerabilities in different regions in line with climate change and economic globalization (O’Brien et al 2004).

Overall, given the interconnected nature of social-ecological systems, it would be useful to investigate measures that can reduce their vulnerability and increase resilience. Berkus et al. (2003: 354-355) describe four approaches: a) learning to live with change and uncertainty; b) nurturing diversity for reorganization and renewal – nurturing ecological memory, maintaining social memory; c) combination of different types of knowledge for learning; d) Creating opportunities for self-organization – matching scales of ecosystems and governance – dealing with cross-scale dynamics. Furthermore, Foulke (2006) regards resilience as processes of adaptation, learning and innovation that in turn improve the sustainability of social and ecological systems. In fact, understanding resilience as the ability to learn from change; The capacity for innovation and reform, and the role of individuals and institutions in this (see, Gunderson et al 1995) needs to be further examined as a necessary step towards sustainable development.

This brings to a re-evaluation of efforts towards sustainability given that there are only a few mechanisms in the social-ecological system that allow it to persist, but which remain vulnerable to human influence and environmental change. How to ensure sustainable development, which is already known to be a paradox (see, Redclift2005), without straining the limits of human adaptive capacities and nature’s resilience remains an open question.

Ecology and Society in Pre-Colonial India

An introduction to the Environmental History Reader, recently published by the Center for Science and Environment (New Delhi), describes environmental history as “a relatively recent innovation compared to political history, economic history, and the history of cultural institutions and practices”.

This introduction traces the origin of the term in the United States and attributes its first use to the historian Roderick Nash in the early 1970s and attributes “the popularity of environmentalist movements in the 1960s” to “promoting inquiry into ecological aspects of the past”. Sees as “giving”. It credits “environmental historians such as Alfred Crosby, Donald Worster, Carolyn Merchant and William Cronon” as pioneers in the emerging discipline, who “gave new fields of inquiry direction by asking important questions about the relationship between humans and nature, While they tried to understand the changes in the world’s ecology through imperialism, exploration, agricultural change, technological innovations and urban expansion”1

Among the many genres of historiography, this stream of ecological or environmental history emerged. While Rangarajan and Sivaramakrishnan (2014: 01) consider Ramachandra Guha’s 1989 book, Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Himalaya to be “the first full-length monograph on India’s environmental history”, Sivaramakrishnan (2003) pointed out that, in India, this genre of historiography was explored by David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha as a “criticism of nationalized economic development that gained momentum after Jai Prakash Narayan’s ‘Total Revolution’ movement in the early 1970s”. Is. In an introductory essay to a collection of essays on the history of the environment

It is interesting that in 2015, a civil society organization that publishes Paryavaran fortnightly magazine decided to bring out an anthology and claimed that it was “the magazine’s attempt to take the history of environment beyond”.

Rarefied Circle” and reflects a “down-to-earth commitment to understanding ecological matters from a historical perspective”. This collection shows how the environmental history of one era sheds light on other aspects of that era. See, Dasgupta, Kaushik (2015) Environmental History Reader, Center for Science and Environment, New Delhi.

2 They trace the career of this monograph in footnotes by drawing readers’ attention to an expanded edition by the University of California Press, Berkeley in the year 2000 and a new edition by Permanent Black, Ranikhet in the year 2009 to celebrate twenty years. Discourse on the environmental history discipline in Indian academia since then, with introductory essays that have since become central to scholarship in environmental history

map the area.

South Asia, Arnold and Guha (1995) situate environmental historiography in the sub-continent within an emerging discipline believed to have emerged in the wake of modern environmental movements in regions such as the United States and France. There in the 1970s. He suggested to fellow environmental historians to pay sufficient attention to “changes in the physical state of forests and pastures as well as changes in the social institutions governing their use”.

He regretted that the great rivers of the subcontinent had not received the scholarly treatment they deserved for “exercising such a definite influence on the natural environment”.

Irfan Habib, in his book, Man and Environment: The Ecological History of India, discusses that during the medieval period, the ports of Gujarat showed the effects of sea level changes, however moderate. Habib (2011: 76) states that “the earliest known port of Gujarat was Bhrigukachha, which was the ‘Barigaza’ of Gujarat.

former length”.

Similarly, Dasgupta (2015: 120-124) recalls how “the death of the Indus Valley Civilization was not caused by a dramatic event” and elaborates on research by Shireen Ratnagar, who proposed in 1986 that “Lift irrigation resulting in over-reaching of its ecological limits”. He also cites an opinion by MH Rawal, former director of the Gujarat Archaeological Department, who suggested in 1989 that “since cattle grazing was an important form of subsistence in Harappa, the large population of goats and sheep also led to overgrazing”. “5.

Perhaps no other scholar has documented riverine ecosystems and how riverine communities and the state interact with them, Dr. Dinesh Mishra, an engineer by academic training and an environmental activist by conviction, has consistently . Dr. Mishra is known for his scathing indictment of the engineering of flood control, exemplified by the embankments on the Kosi River and other river systems in North Bihar.

David Arnold and Ramachandra Guha also outlined the work required of fellow travelers, urging them to “take into account long-term developments, not just climate change, to open up the time frame for discussion of climate change”. To focus on the development of last century or so”.

Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, in their pioneering work, This Fished Land: An Ecological History of India, in an early attempt to do such a thing, presented the landscape of South Asia as populated not only by settled villages, Rather presented as a treasure trove of organic. A diversity of hunter-gatherers, jhumia or nomadic cultivators, nomadic herders, seafaring traders and fishermen practicing both inland and coastal fishing. The work not only had a rigorous focus on pre-colonial India, but it “drew on an array of archaeological and literary evidence to develop a comprehensive framework for accessing patterns of ecological change in the past”. However, it has also been claimed that “most of the later collections and anthologies on India’s environmental past barely focus on the era before 1800”.

Rangarajan and Sivaramakrishnan (2012: 05) point out that such a situation arose because “sources for pre-modern and early modern forest and environmental history are virtually scarce”.

To correct this discrepancy, he presents an edited volume consisting of essays from prehistoric India to the mid-nineteenth century, in which four of the 16 essays attempt to combine archeology and ecology, and others Construct “imagery and state of nature” from four literary texts7. In a later anthology published in 2014, Rangarajan and Sivaramakrishnan (2014: 07) stress the need to engage critically with long-term histories of lands or peoples when they claim that “more sustained is needed” and dialogue that spans different eras (such as pre-historic, ancient, medieval and modern), more so because many historians and sociologists of modern India often see the past as a kind of tabla rasa. They point out that “excellent works such as Environment and Empire in 2007 and Imperial Encounter in 2012 achieve much in the way of exploring the complex relationship between British imperialism and ecological processes, but they are rarely looked at, let alone critically let alone long be attached to—the history of the land or the people—even in terms of perspective, let alone harsh treatment.”

Such a trend displayed by anthropology within environmental history should invoke a sense of disbelief with so much of the work of archaeologists in the sub-continent. Had the science of archeology ceased to be a discipline only about excavations and fossil records? Would environmental history not be based on the knowledge that it offers us of climate change during ancient and medieval times in India, along with a reconstruction of society and ecology in Neolithic and Mesolithic India? Whether the study of literary texts such as Meghadootam or Abhijnana Shakuntalam by Kalidas

Would not provide certain avenues for understanding climatic functions such as the Indian monsoon or different perspectives on forests8? Will the ancient and medieval streams of historiography not explore themes that will provide insight for those pursuing environmental history? Wouldn’t discoveries in disciplines such as geology provide insights to be incorporated into environmental history, for example the changing flow regimes and historically and geologically memorable floods in the sub-continent’s river basins?

As Irfan Habib points out in his book, Man and Environment: The Ecological History of India, there is not a single published work on the ecological history of the entire period of ancient India or medieval India9. Habib tells that D.D. Kosambi’s An Introduction to the Study of India’s History (1956) is important for a student of environmental history, as Kosambi’s emphasis on ecological factors while analyzing historical development is significant.

Sayan Bhattacharya (2014) looks at ancient Indian literary texts such as the Arthashastra, the Shatapatha Brahmana, the Vedas, the Manusmriti, the Brihat Samhita, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Rajatarangini and the archaeological evidence to see how these texts reflect the concepts of forest ecology and conservation as a sustainable . manner10. Bhattacharya argues that “in the Indus Valley Civilization, many features of town planning and social structure showed environmental awareness”. Irfan Habib (2011: 28) in

indicates that “wheat and barley were cultivated in the Indus basin before 6000 BCE, and rice was cultivated in the Ganges basin about 3000 years later”, but speculates that “the relationship of the whole region The area under cultivation was still very small in the 19th century. He also talks about the findings of the archaeological site at Mehrgarh, which indicate that “period II (5000 to 4000 BC) includes bread wheat and shot wheat as wheat species”. Also at this site, we find indications of the first act of a major fiber-plant domestication in the domestication of cotton in the Old World.

Alongside these archaeological evidence suggesting agriculture were those suggesting pastoralism as an important feature of the Neolithic Revolution. Irfan Habib (2011: 22) “talks about the earliest evidence of goat domestication in the Levant (Syria and Palestine) dating back to 8000 BCE; and around 7000 B.C. domesticated sheep appearing around” and so on” period in Mehrgarh, in the Indian subcontinent.

(7000–5000 BC), both wild goat and wild sheep, apparently caught from the neighboring hills, are represented by bone remains; But there is also the domesticated goat”. Habib says that an important evidence also suggests that sheep were domesticated here, as a gradual reduction in the size of its skeleton is observed. However, the more important development was the domestication of cattle. Discussing the evidence at Mehrgarh in its Period I (7000 – 5000 BCE), Habib (2011: 30) argues that “the remains of bones, by and large, belong only to wild species , and of these the wild bull (Bos primigenius) is also represented” and adds that “yet, bones of humpback or zebu cattle are also found; and in later stages, an increase in their numbers and a decrease in their individual size – a distinctive mark of the process of domestication.

Talking about India’s other bovine – the water buffalo – Habib (2011: 31) states that, “Interestingly, the earliest archaeological evidence for buffalo domestication does not come from the Gangetic basin, where the natural environment One might have expected this, but from northwestern India: from the Kashmir Neolithic, 2500–2000 BCE, and from the Indus culture sites of Balakot (near Karachi) and Dholavira in Kutch, about the same date “.

Talking about two Mesolithic sites (Adamgarh in the Narmada valley, c. 6000 BCE and Bagore in the Aravalli (Mewar), Phase I (5365–2650 BCE)), Habib (2011: 31) argues that there The bone remains of animals suggest a process of exclusive pastoral diffusion. To explore how particular pastoral diffusion may have come to form a symbiosis with agriculture, Habib (2011: 32) argues that around 3300 BCE and 3000 BCE several innovations – such as the male bull , or castration as a means of making bulls, quite tractable

This book by Irfan Habib, being volume 36 of the series A People’s History of India, provides a comprehensive understanding of the ecological history of the sub-continent in pre- and colonial times.

could be controlled by humans, making it capable of hauling loads and pulling ploughs, and a vertical cart wheel, making transport by bullock cart possible.

The next period (c. 1500 BC– 700 AD) in our knowledge of the environmental history of India occurs around 1500 BC, as we now move from exclusive reliance on archaeological evidence to texts. Habib (2011: 48) states that “a growing body of texts, such as the Rigveda, supplemented the findings of archeology, and later reinforced by inscriptions, eventually relegated archeology to a secondary, though not insignificant position”. So we find that Irfan Habib wrote Rigveda,

X146; Ashoka’s Pillar Edict V: Animals must be protected; Bana’s Harshacharita (seventh century): On the limits of the forests of the Vindhyas.

Medieval period (c. 700 – AD 1750)

Irfan Habib argues that there were considerable variations in rainfall during the medieval period.

Among those who have explored pre-colonial India within environmental history, the first group of researchers are those who attempt to engage with the narrative that often describes pre-agricultural methods of resource use as cultures. which were later threatened to be erased. The Face of Agricultural Expansion Rangarajan and Sivaramakrishnan (2012: 01) cite Vibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay’s Bengali text, Aranyak of the Forest, as an illustration of a sensitive portrayal of the conquest of the forest by culture over arable, nature in the early twentieth century . He also refers to the writings of D.D. Kosambi, opining that “pre-agricultural cultures and ways of life could not be neglected

Jugged and comprehensive, contained and absorbed in a more ‘advanced’ milieu, Kosambi may have imagined himself as a “historian of the demise of the old ways”. Similar values were shared by some colonial experts who failed to understand the rhythm of pastoral mobility and mixed it with vagrancy and tried to embark on a ‘modernisation’ mission.

Typical law and order approach. Although much of the focus has been on forests and agricultural landscapes within environmental history, there are few accounts that have been associated with pastoralism in the past of South Asia since protohistoric times and gradually become more and more rare. As we move forward in later times. Therefore, in 1991 Professor Shireen Ratnagar and her colleagues at the Center for Historical Studies at JNU organized a workshop on the exploration of pastoralism as a topic in history11. Historical moments such as permanent settlement and the consolidation of colonial policies and control of forests have often been presented as a dramatic discontinuity in environmental history. However, the discourse about dwindling grasslands, the encroachment of settled farming on patterns of use of grassland resources and migrations arising from the catastrophic redrawing of client-custodian relationships have to be conceived as a pre-colonial period.

Shireen Ratnagar, in her introductory essay for that workshop, talks about “an inscription from around 860 AD from the area around Jodhpur, about a village still dominated by the ‘Abhiras’ (a pastoral group) which is being rehabilitated and rebuilt”. However, she quickly reminds her readers that “occasionally, the reverse process is documented: occupied lands are converted into pastures”. Drawing our attention to a doctoral thesis by Varavel on the History of Pastoral Communities of Ancient and Medieval Tamil Nadu was presented. Madurai Kamaraj University in 1989. Ratnagar (2004: 97) underlines that “intermingling and complementarity (between permanent cultivators and pastoralists), however, does not mean that only mixed farming was prevalent” and that pastoral practices gradually died out. went.

She suggests that “we need to consider ‘agro-pastoralism’ alongside pastoral nomadism”, as the latter “may prevail in areas that cannot support particularly successful agriculture or pastoralism”. those who depend more on herds for their livelihood spend less time and labor on the fields, and vice versa”12. It would also be wrong to assume that there is a difference between mobile pastoralists and sedentary cultivators. There is a perfectly harmonious symbiosis, as Daniel Ballard’s paper ‘Nomadism and Politics: The Case of Afghan Nomads in the Indian Subcontinent’ points out that there were frequent conflicts between these two groups and long before such conflicts can be pointed out It was when Sumant Mehta gave his speech at the first Gujarat Kisan Parishad conference and emphasized how Raika and Kunbi13 consulted him. Irfan Habib recommends Sumit Guha’s book, Environment and Ethnicity in India (1200-1991). which reflected the social and political complexity between the settled and forest areas in the pre-colonial period. have been exposed.

Rangarajan and Sivaramakrishnan (2012: 02-04) examine three premises about the pre-colonial past in the subcontinent: “the first was limited access to cultivable arable states”, the second which follows from the first “was landscape change”. the virtual eclipse of states as actors in the field” and third “tended to erode the self-governing nature of village societies at the cost of ignoring the wider power relations that existed within village societies”.

See, Ballard, Daniel (1991) ‘Nomadism and Politics: The Case of Afghan Nomads in the Indian Subcontinent’, Studies I History, Vol 7, No 2, pp. 205–230. See also Mehta, Sumant (1939) Gujarat Kisan Parishad: First Session, Pramukh Nu Bhasha, Gujarat Kisan Parishad, Mumbai.

He cautions us to note how in recent decades, “the popular perception of this has moved from one extreme – as in the nationalist history of early India, to one where the power of the states was regarded as omnipotent”. saw

tended – to another – to exaggerate the role of accessibility and local history”. This reminds us of a passionate argument made by historian Niladri Bhattacharya at a conference called Ecological History and Traditions organized by the Center for Science and Environment in March 1997, where Bhattacharya argued “strongly against viewing the state as invisible”. given or a

And local elements are key players”. Rangarajan and Sivaramakrishnan (2014: 08) also urge environmental history scholars to significantly open up “the concept of a primeval forest” because “when, where and how such a hold on imagination begins, It matters”.

In recent years, narratives have also emerged that attempt to imagine and portray a golden past when resource use did not go beyond natural limits.

Relationship between economics and ecology

We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors, we borrow it from our children.

Concerns for sustainable development have become more and more apparent in the last four decades since the Stockholm Conference in 1972. In 2012 Rio+20 came out with a document titled “The Future We Want” and called for ensuring the promotion of an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable future for our planet and for present and future generations. Such an effort also set the stage for planning a detailed agenda for future action, which took the form of preparing another important document, “Transforming Our World”, which lays the groundwork for sustainable development during the coming 15 years. is going to guide our search for. It develops a list of 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 169 targets to achieve them. Five areas of critical importance to humanity and the planet have been identified in the draft 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development which was released on 3 August 2015. Those 5P’s are:

People: eradicating poverty and hunger, in all their forms and dimensions, and ensuring that all human beings can fulfill their potential in dignity and equality and in health

Climate”.

The Planet: “Preventing the planet from degradation through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change, so that it can support the needs of present and future generations”.

Prosperity: To ensure that “all human beings can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives and that economic, social and technological progress is in harmony with nature”.

Peace: “Promoting peaceful, just and inclusive societies that are free from fear and violence (as the authors of the document firmly believe) There can be no sustainable development without peace and no peace without sustainable development” may be” and

Partnership: Mobilizing the necessary means to implement this agenda through a revitalized global partnership for sustainable development, based on a spirit of strong global solidarity, focusing especially on the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable and with the participation of all countries, all stakeholders and all people”.

In short, the document calls for a strategy that will ensure inclusive growth for humanity in the days to come as well as protect the planet from rapid degradation, unless dealt with sensibly from now on, especially human life. may threaten the existence of, and the ecosystem in general, in the near future. While the first concern traditionally falls within the realm of economics, the second concerns the realm of ecology. The present section looks at the apparent contradictions between the two branches of knowledge in terms of their “conceptual frameworks” and also tracks recent attempts at an interdisciplinary approach to reduce the apparent conflicts between the two.

A Facebook meme, which recently went viral, reads:

“Earth is 4.6 billion years old. Let’s do this on a scale of 46 years. We’ve been here for 4 hours. Our

The Industrial Revolution started 1 minute ago. In that time we have destroyed more than 50% of the world’s forests”.

Some stylistic facts from Barbier (2014) would also be in order in this context.

“Since 1970, the World Bank’s World Development Indicators have provided estimates for most countries adjusting for national income, income growth and savings that result from net depletion of forests, energy resources and minerals. This rate of natural-capital depreciation as a percentage of adjusted net national income over the past four decades is alarming.
“The decline in natural capital has been, on average, five times greater in developing economies than in the eight richest countries”.
“Natural capital depreciation has increased significantly in all countries since the 1990s. There was a decline during the global recession of 2008–09, but as the world economy has recovered, so has the rate of resource use.
“According to the worldwide Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, approximately 60% of key global ecosystem services are degraded or used unsustainably, including fresh water, wild fisheries, air and water purification, and regional and local climate , includes regulation of natural hazards and pests. ,

These facts underline the conflict between the pursuit of economic growth and maintaining the ecosystem in its desired state, which will be on the mind for many years to come.

Ensures sustainable livelihood for the people.

Thomas Malthus was perhaps the first to express concern about the possibility of such a conflict which coincided with the height of the Industrial Revolution in Europe. He argued that while the Earth’s food-producing capacity was increasing in arithmetic progression, human population was increasing at a rate of geometric progress, aided by a continual increase in economic activity.

n, a cautionary note about the possibility of limits to growth – an issue taken up in right earnest by the “Club of Rome” in the early 1970s. This reflects the potential for exhaustion of finite resources – namely mineral reserves – at the prevailing rate of growth of the economy and population, as well as at the current rate of use, unless new reserves and sources are identified to increase the supply of those resources. Is done Despite serious criticisms of the data and the methods used and the conclusions drawn, believers pushed the limits of evolution and produced its final sequel in 2011, with Ugo Bardi insisting that “the warnings we received in 1972 . ..they are becoming. increasingly more worrisome because reality is closely following the curves that the ..scenario generated.”

Economics and Ecology: Fundamental Difference

What are the fundamental differences between the basic premises followed by an economist and an ecologist?

While an ecologist considers human beings to be a part of the ecosystem and linked to other natural resources – both living and non-living – in an integrated series of relationships, an economist considers human beings to be located away from the ecosystem. The ability to use its components in ways that optimize human well-being in the material sense.

Economists believe in optimizing human welfare by increasing their ability to produce and consequently consume those goods and services which are continuously added to the increased GDP and subsequently the Human Development Index. Various components of nature are used to facilitate the movement of the economy along such a desired path, in which the earth is used as the source of the resource and as the sink of the “bad” produced in the process. Used in, but not suitable for human consumption.

In doing so, economists do not differentiate between man-made resources and resources produced by nature. There has also been a strong belief among economists over the years that technological advances will facilitate man-made production of most natural resources as and when such a need arises. On the other hand, ecologists believe that most natural resources, if not all, can only be consumed by humans, but can never be produced by them and should therefore be used sparingly. Furthermore, the use of nature as a sink for “bad” may endanger ecosystem functioning in a way that may lead to the eventual collapse of the ecosystem threatening the survival of mankind as Noah did. One of the thousands of species found on the ark.

Concern for “sustainable development” and the realization that neither economics nor ecology can pursue their disciplinary pursuits oblivious to the asymmetries emanating from each other have led to efforts to resolve “ideological” conflicts. A recent article by Herman Daly outlines the different world views of economists and ecologists and, very succinctly, one possible way of reconciling them. According to him, such integration is attempted through three different strategies:

Economic Imperialism
Ecological reductionism and
Steady State Subsystem.

In each of these three strategies, the economy is treated as a subsystem of a finite ecosystem. However, the strategies differ in terms of their paths.

economic imperialism

The strategy of economic imperialism “seeks to expand the range of the economic subsystem until it encompasses the entire ecological sector. The target is a system, the macro-economy as a whole. In a typical neo-classical world view the aggregate is subjective Individual preferences are taken as the ultimate source of value. And expansion is considered legitimate as long as the cost of such expansion – the cost of ecosystem degradation – is internalized, i.e. the cost of ecosystem degradation. All resulting costs will be identified and added to the value of the products or services.

Only those people who are willing and able to pay such increased price will be able to consume them, the rest will be kept out of bounds. With the increasing extent of degradation of ecosystems and the resulting rise in prices of goods and services produced, there will be a built-in control mechanism that will limit the extent of degradation before a sustainable level is reached. The following diagram explains the perspective in detail. The consumption of goods and services produced by an economic system provides utility. Following the law of diminishing marginal utility, the utility derived from an incremental unit of a good or service decreases as consumption increases.

Will go The internalization of the costs of ecosystem degradation—in terms of the use of natural resources beyond the limits of natural evolution and the use of nature as a sink for production waste—will also add to the inadmissibility of consuming a product. And incremental inefficiency will increase with increasing consumption of the goods or services in question. Hence the marginal utility curve slopes downward

to the right, while the marginal inefficiency curve moves in the opposite direction. In a typical neo-classical framework, the intersection point between these two lines gives the economic limit to growth. If resources are still consumed to ensure increased levels of production and consumption, nature may reach a tipping point of environmental catastrophe – akin to ecosystem collapse. Ideally, the point of economic limit to growth is expected to lie to the left of the point of environmental catastrophe and hence provide mankind with some precious time to wake up to the desired course of action. The indifference curve marked at the right corner of the diagram refers to the point of complete satisfaction on the part of the consumer – beyond this point, there is no increase in total utility. It is realized that if the costs of ecosystem degradation are internalized in the process of production and consumption, environmental catastrophe will ensue even before the point of complete satisfaction is reached.

This strategy gives rise to a special discipline in economics called environmental economics. However, the outlook is unreliable. Many of these costs have not been imagined, let alone imagined, following Herbert Simon’s argument for limited rationality. Simon argued that humans are not capable of accurately predicting all future events as assumed under the condition of rationality. Thus full internalization of the costs of ecosystem degradation is difficult to achieve in reality. Furthermore, even if some such external costs are visible, proper enforcement mechanisms often take a long time and may be partial in affecting the desired level of internalisation.

The debate on climate change is still a matter of inconclusive. Thus the process of effective internalization may not be correct either, which leads us to a similar situation, that of an ideal market system as presented by the neo-classical school of economic thought, as lacking a complete set of ideal markets. deviation is characteristic. Here we end up with a lack of a mechanism to ensure complete and correct internalization of ecosystem degradation.

This is known as the polluter pays principle

At this juncture it would be appropriate to mention a question raised by Daly:

“Are we better off with the new large-scale formerly free goods at the right price, or with the old small-scale free goods also at the right price (at zero)? In both cases the prices are right. This is optimal by neoclassical economics. There is the pressing question of scale, which has not been answered, in fact not even asked.

ecological reductionism

Ecological reductionism holds that human behavior can be explained by the same set of natural laws that explain the behavior of other components of nature and thus proposes to remove the boundary of the economic subsystem and incorporate it within the natural system. Huh. Daly argues that it “begins with the true insight that humans and markets are not free from the laws of nature. It then proceeds to the erroneous presumption that human action can be fully explained by the laws of nature, less is doable…..taken to the extreme, this view explains all by a materialistic deterministic system (of nature) that leaves no room for purpose or desire (which separates men from the other constituents of nature ).

The argument for ecological reductionism derives its strength from the second law of thermodynamics. It was Manjh N Georgescu-Roegen, in his book “The Entropy Law and the Economic Process” published in 1971, who argued that it was the phenomenon of free energy’s tendency to scatter and be lost as bound energy, that drives an economic process. He is thus considered one of the founding fathers of ecological economics, even though he called his new approach bio-economics. His argument centered on the fact that humans, like all other living beings, depend on the energy available in the usable form of natural resources—referred to in the literature as free energy. However, once the resources are used up and the fact that they are not fully recyclable, some part is thrown back into nature as waste, we generate energy which is now Not available for consumption. They are called bound energies. According to Georgescu-Roegen entropy is a measure of the unbound or bound energy that arises within the natural system in which we live.

the rate of extraction of natural resources and the elimination of waste into the environment” (Gaudi and Messner 1998, p 147). Other living organisms also feed on low entropy sources of energy to build and preserve their complex structures, and diffuse energy into higher entropy states. However, Ant

Their contribution to the increase in Rape level is negligible compared to that of humans.

Evidence of humans contributing to an alarmingly increasing entropy in ecosystems can be located in abundance in the existing literature. The increase in entropy manifests itself in a number of ways, affecting human life and well-being. Some of them are direct and some others are indirect. For direct effects, we have already mentioned above the observation of Barbier (2014) who found that the share of natural resource scarcity in the adjusted GNI of most countries was quite significant. Some effects from rising temperatures are already happening, according to a document available on National Geographic’s website.

Ice is melting around the world, especially at the Earth’s poles. This includes mountain glaciers, the ice sheets covering West Antarctica and Greenland, and the Arctic sea ice.
Researcher Bill Fraser has tracked the decline of Adelie penguins on Antarctica, where their numbers have fallen from 32,000 breeding pairs to 11,000 in 30 years.
There has been a rapid rise in sea level in the last century.
Some butterflies, foxes, and alpine plants have moved farther north or to higher, colder regions.
Precipitation (rain and snow) has increased on average worldwide.
Spruce bark beetles are booming in Alaska because of 20 years of warmest summers. The insects have chewed through 4 million acres of spruce trees.

It also notes that if warming continues.

Sea level is expected to rise between 7 and 23 inches (18 and 59 cm) by the end of the century, and continued melting at the poles could lead to a rise of between 4 and 8 inches (10 to 20 cm).

There is a possibility of intensification of thunderstorms and other storms.
Species that depend on each other may become out of sync. For example, plants may bloom before their pollinating insects are active.
Floods and droughts will become more common. Precipitation in Ethiopia, where drought is already common, could decrease by up to 10 percent over the next 50 years.
Less fresh water will be available. If the Quelcaya Ice Cap in Peru continues to melt at its current rate, it will be gone by 2100, leaving thousands of people who depend on it for drinking water and electricity without a source.
Some diseases will spread, such as malaria, which is spread by mosquitoes.
ecosystems will change—some species will move further north or be more successful; Others will not be able to move and may become extinct. Wildlife research scientist Martin Obard has found that since the mid-1980s, due to less ice to live on and fishing for food, polar bears have become significantly thinner. Polar bear biologist Ian Stirling has found a similar pattern in Hudson Bay. They fear that if sea ice disappears, polar bears will disappear as well.

Now for the indirect effects. Bartoloni (2003) argues that negative externalities in two forms contribute to the economic development process of human societies. They are positional externalities—humans’ desire to achieve a higher relative position in the social ladder—and environmental externalities that limit the availability of free goods to humans. For example, economic development has ensured that a price is being paid today even for pure drinking water, which until a few decades ago was freely available around the world.

Thomas F. Homer-Dixon (1994) identified six types of environmental change as potential causes of violent intergroup conflict:

Greenhouse-induced climate change;
Stratospheric ozone depletion;
Degradation and loss of good agricultural land;
erosion and deforestation;
Depletion and pollution of fresh water supplies; And
Lack of fisheries.

They tested three hypotheses linking these changes to violent conflict and finding them to be positive. “First, the dwindling supply of physically controlled environmental resources, such as clean water and good agricultural land, will provoke interstate “simple-scarcity” conflicts or resource wars. Second, the large population movements caused by environmental stress can lead to “group-identification” will induce conflicts, especially ethnic conflicts. And third, severe environmental degradation will simultaneously increase economic deprivation and disrupt key social institutions, which in turn will lead to “deprivation” conflicts such as civil strife and extremism.

Adherents of ecological reductionism firmly believe that like the “tragedy of the commons” detailed by Garrett Hardin [1968], we are in for a “tragedy of entropy”. The process of increasing entropy cannot be reversed. Daley disagrees and suggests that collective actions that successfully avoid the tragedy of the commons [see Ostrom, 1992 for details] are necessary to overcome the “tragedy of entropy”. One should not give up and claim a process that suggests erasing the boundary between the ecosystem and the human economic system. Literature on the issue of social and ecological systems connectivity and their resilience

We can mention some of the relevant debates in India regarding conservation versus development.

“The Debate on Biodiversity Conservation in the World” by Nagarajan et al [July 25, 2015, pp 49-56] in Economic and Political Weekly

A recent paper titled “Eastern Ghats” may provide us with a point of departure in furthering our argument. The study is based on the findings of the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel [WGEEP] chaired by Madhav Gadgil and the High Level Working Group [HLWG] chaired by K. Kasturirangan. In response to the same set of terms of reference, the former proposed the entire Western Ghats as ecologically sensitive – closer to the philosophy of ecological reductionism, while the latter identified only 37% of the area as ecologically sensitive. declared.

Similar to the ideas of economic imperialism. The two studies used methodologies and data that were completely different from each other, reflecting their respective worldviews. And interestingly, none of them considered the grassroots political conditions that would outline possible collective actions in an attempt to reach a mutually acceptable settlement point.

The debate on the issue of conservation around the Western Ghats also raises a fundamental issue in comparison to the entropy literature. Even though human activities on a macro scale contribute to increasing entropy in the ecosystem, there are communities that live in close harmony with nature and rarely disturb the process of disturbing the ecological balance. nor do they use natural resources

at a rate that goes beyond their natural growth rate, nor do they generate wastes that are highly biodegradable and therefore beyond nature’s own ability to absorb. However, these micro-entities are not powerful enough to influence the discussion on what measures should be taken to bring about a balance between economics and ecology in order to keep Mother Earth a habitable planet on a sustainable basis. As a result, they are held hostage by both groups professing economic imperialism and ecological reductionism and are often cut off from the close relationship they have maintained with nature since ancient times. Arguments in the context of collective action demand their effective inclusion in the process of dialogue.

steady state subsystem

The idea of a steady state subsystem has its origins in John Stuart Mill (1857), who coined the concept of a steady state – when both the rate of population growth and the growth rate of capital accumulation are zero. Zero rate of growth of population would mean equality between birth and death rates, whereas zero rate of increase in capital stock would mean output equal to depreciation. However, such a state would need to equate rates at a low level, reflecting high human longevity and the durability of goods and services produced, subject to the maintenance of sufficient stocks for a high quality of life.

Differences in approach also feed the divergence in the methodological toolkits available to economists and ecologists to tackle the issue of sustainable development. Recent efforts to develop “Green National Accounts” are a step in the right direction. The “Inclusive Wealth Report 2014”, prepared by a group of experts led by Partha Dagupta, also seeks to fill some of the data gaps with a well-thought-out framework for conceptualizing inclusive wealth that will put us on the path to sustainable development. as well as thrive in an inter-generational tandem to ensure intra-generational equity.

However, there are some methodological challenges to identifying the desired pathways to achieve a reconciliation between economics and ecology. A conceptual framework that facilitates understanding of the relationship between humanity and nature at the micro level and is capable of being extrapolated to the macro level is the urgent need of the day. Otherwise we will be trapped in arguments seeking solutions that deliver the highest social and environmental returns in our pursuit of sustainable development. Needless to add, such an approach would fail to separate the effects of macro policies on the multiplicity of species and human communities from those at the micro level. Furthermore, there is a need for a welfare economics framework that includes nature as a key stakeholder. looking at many

The non-convexity and non-linearity found in the production and consumption behavior of nature and the rest of its non-human species, the conceptual challenge will be difficult.

Due to pollution of water, air and land on daily basis the carrying capacity of the earth has become very high. Scientists, scholars and even governments around the world have realized that the global environment is changing rapidly as a result of global warming and climate change induced by human industrial and domestic emissions of greenhouse gases. Related environmental crises such as floods, desertification, drought, loss of biodiversity, erratic rainfall patterns, overgrazing, pollution, and so on have affected the lives of millions of people across the world. Millions of livelihoods have been destroyed, cultures have changed, communities have been displaced as the effects of climate change devastate communities globally. The nature of climate change suggests that the global environment is at risk and human societies are at greater risk as human beings themselves are at risk; This is because

Because environmental problems respect no national boundaries, they can be local in cause but global in effect.

Man’s contribution to this environmental quagmire cannot be overemphasized, since the advent of the Industrial Revolution in 18th and 19th century Europe and the spread of industrialization around the world, the incidence of environmental degradation has skyrocketed. Therefore, to understand contemporary global environmental problems, one must first understand the nature and operation of modern industrial society. One may ask what is the concern of sociology with the study of environmental problems. Did the classical sociologists include environmental issues in their theorizing? The answer to these questions is not far-fetched, if sociology studies the interaction of human society and human groups, and human society does not exist in a vacuum, it operates within a limited space called the environment, and both

Institutions influence and shape each other’s existence, so the environment is the subject of sociological investigation. The sub-discipline that studies this society-environment-relationship is called environmental sociology. According to Catton and Dunlap (1978 cited in King and McCarthy 2009: 9) environmental sociology should examine how humans change their environment and also how they are affected by their environment. He developed a “new ecological paradigm”, which represented an early attempt to explore society-environment relationships. This new ecological paradigm is a conscious attempt to challenge the perceived anthropocentrism of classical sociology (i.e. the emphasis on environmental processes in early sociological theory) by including environmental forces as objective variables in social explanations (Gross and Heinrich, 2010: 3). ) Anthony Giddens (2009: 159) supported this stand when he argued that the founders of early sociology – Marx, Durkheim and Weber – paid little attention to what we now call ‘environmental issues’ (p. 159).

In contrast, Butel (1986 cited in Hannigan 2006:8) believes that arguably the trinity of Marx, Durkheim and Weber had an underlying environmental dimension to their work, although this was never brought to the fore , largely because their American translators and interpreters favored social structural interpretations over physical or environmental interpretations. However there have been attempts to show that classical sociologists captured the society-environment relationship in their theory and these include the work of Caton 2002; West 1984; Bellamy Foster 1999; Dickens 2004; Dunlop et al. 2002; Murphy 1997; Verdu 2010 and so on. Accordingly, Giddens (ibid) believes that the role of sociology in the study and analysis of environmental issues can be summarized as follows: First, sociology can provide an account of how patterns of human behavior interact with natural processes. create pressure on the environment; Second, sociology can help us understand how environmental problems are distributed. Third, sociology can help us evaluate policies and proposals aimed at providing solutions to environmental problems.

Environment

There is no generally accepted definition of the term environment among scholars and this is because the term environment means different things to different people (Sibiri 2009). For Enger and Smith (2004), the environment is anything that affects an organism during its lifetime. From this point of view, the environment encompasses the web of relationships of human beings. whatever human beings do, whether in a social, economic, political, technological, cultural or religious context

Guided by the limits of your environment. Similarly, Cunningham and Cunningham (2004) state that environment refers to all the circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or group of organisms. He extended his definition of environment in terms of social and cultural conditions.

that affect an individual or a community. According to Varika (cited in Okaba 2005) although environment means different things to different people, it is defined as a physical environment, conditions, circumstances etc. in which people live. For him, the environment includes nature which is the physical part of the physical world including all the phenomena of the physical world including plants, animals, landscape, etc. and the entire ecosystem, the biological community of interacting organisms. Waripamo (cited in Jack 2014) states that the environment is more concerned with the conditions that support the existence of human beings.

For him, environment means a large set of elements which include water, air, land and all plants and man himself; the other animals living in it and above all the interrelationships that exist between these or any of them. Overall, the way one views the environment, it is the total conditions that surround an organism (biological or social) during its life that facilitate or hinder the development and survival of that organism.

components of the environment

Other non-living components of the environment, which he called “abiotic”, include things such as water, soil, air temperature, air, and wind. the sunlight. He emphasized that the environment is an interaction of biotic and abiotic factors.

These biotic and abiotic components of the environment are further divided into four categories:

Lithosphere (Land): Outer layers of earth’s soil e.g. Rocks, sediments and soil.
Atmosphere (Air): The layer of gases that extends from the surface of the earth to the outer limits of our planet for about 100 km.
Hydrosphere (Water): The layers of water that cover our planet oceans, lakes, rivers, streams and ice sheets Ice and water in the soil.

Biosphere: It is the thinnest layer, consisting of organic matter such as plants and animals. This layer covers most of the land surface and extends into the atmosphere and into deep water bodies. Human beings are part of the biosphere and exist by interacting with the other three spheres.

An environment is therefore a system or community of biotic and abiotic components that are maintained by the interactions of food chains and energy cycles as seen in food webs.

Environment – Society Relations

The history of man and human society can be clearly described, characterized by the continuous interaction between man and his environment. It is interesting to note that this interaction between humans and the environment has been constant over time and the nature of this interaction is changing as human societies undergo changes in their organisation, structure and advances in technology (Sibiri 2009). Human society does not exist in a vacuum but within a physical environment, so the importance of this relationship is underlined in the sense that human existence is entirely dependent on the environment to maintain its welfare needs (food, shelter). depends on capacity. more clothes). Environmental sustainability, on the other hand, is also bound by man’s judicious use of the physical environment and its innumerable resources, which ensure and guarantee the real source of man’s continued existence (Okaba 2005).

Therefore, the relationship between man and his environment can be measured and summarized by defining the functions of the environment. Thus, Schaefer and Laman (1986) pointed out three basic functions of the environment which are basic prerequisites for human life, these include: (a) that the environment provides essential resources for life (air, water and raw materials) provides; (b) that the environment also serves as a waste reservoir, e.g. body waste, garbage and sewage; (c) Human beings and other living organisms live in it.

Therefore, as highlighted above, the interaction of man with the environment is based on the ability of the environment to provide these three basic functions to man and his society. Historically,

The human population was small and life was simple. The human waste was purely organic i.e. biodegradable material, which acted as a source of food for the decomposers. The relationship between man and his environment was reciprocal and symbiotic because an ecological system exists in balance and equilibrium. However, environmental pollution began to occur as the population grew, generating more waste than the ecosystem could absorb. to improve human society

Advanced technological inventions to exploit natural resources, which subjugated the ecosystem. Agriculture alters the species mix, timber harvesting for industry leads to deforestation, grazing of arid and semi-arid lands leads to desertification, aquatic ecosystems are polluted by agricultural chemical runoff and industrial waste destroys biodiversity. Habitat loss and extinction result from the inability of species to adapt to changes in their environment. Rapid population growth has resulted in increased demands on Earth’s resources, leading to rapid environmental degradation, and potentially leading to severe global climate change.

Human impact on the land has been immense, as land-use has changed, natural vegetation has been cleared for agricultural use and urbanization has increased, resources have been created, minerals extracted, and more for recreational purposes. The land has been developed. Widespread concern is now expressed over the deforestation of boreal and tropical forests, the degradation of grasslands, land and wetlands, and desertification. Such destruction of natural ecosystems has resulted in decreased biodiversity, and soil depletion, In efforts to counter the harmful effects of land abuse in the regions, exotic plants and animals are being carefully monitored and They are being encouraged. Human influence on the soil has also caused some significant damage, usually due to poor agricultural practices, excessive drainage, poor irrigation, and compaction by heavy vehicles and animals. Cumulative of

The effects can be devastating for countries whose economies are heavily dependent on agriculture.

Correcting these poor practices and improving soil quality require an understanding of soil chemistry and nutrient supply cycles. Oceans and seas cover more than two-thirds of the Earth’s surface. It is thought that life almost certainly evolved from the sea and that there is more species diversity in the sea than anywhere else on Earth. Many food chains and food webs begin with organisms living in the seas and oceans. The ocean-atmosphere system controls the global climate. This is a sensitive thermostat. The seas and oceans are rich in food and mineral resources. However, over-exploitation and population

Threat to this huge life. Humans think that the vastness of the ocean makes it an ideal place for virtually every type of waste, including toxic chemicals and nuclear waste. Exploiting the Earth’s resources inevitably produces waste, some of which may be hazardous or toxic. For the past few decades, most waste has been disposed of without any real concern for damage to ecosystems and often under the auspices of “not in my backyard”.

ecology

The science of ecology deals with the study of organisms in their environment and their relationships with each other. Here the term ‘environment’ refers to the surrounding world, which includes all entities, both living and non-living, that surround a living entity.

The word ‘ecology’ is derived from the Greek words oikos, meaning household and logos, meaning study. Thus ecology means the study of life at home or the interrelationships and interdependence of plants, animals, microbes and their environment. Because ecology is specifically concerned with the biology of groups of organisms and their functional processes in land, water, and air, it can also be defined as the study of the structure and function of nature. Ecology as a distinct field of knowledge emerged in the early years of the last century. In its early stages, ecology was considered synonymous with natural history.

Y or nature study. With the greater documentation of observations by students of nature studies, the importance of “quantification” of data came into force. Since then several definitions for the term have been proposed by various authors. Some definitions are:

Ecology is the sum total of the relations of organisms to the surrounding external world, to organic and inorganic conditions of existence (Haeckel, 1886).
Ecology is the study of organisms in relation to their environment (Warming, 1895).
Ecology is the scientific natural history concerned with the sociology and economics of animals (Elton, 1927).
Ecology is the science of the relationship of all organisms to their environment (Taylor, 1936).
Ecology is the interaction of forms, functions and factors (Mishra, 1967).
Is the study of the structure and function of the ecosystem (Odum, 1969).
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms (Kerbs, 1985).

Just as cells are grouped into tissues and tissues into organs and then systems, organisms can also be grouped into groups. A population is a group of organisms of the same species that live in an area during a specific period of time. A species is considered to be a group of organisms that are able to breed with each other under natural conditions and produce fertile offspring. For example, mosquitoes on the surface of a pond in spring and maple trees in a Vermont forest in autumn form two populations.

Populations can be grouped together. All populations of different species interacting with each other within an area form a community. All the protists, plants and animals interacting on a coral reef make up a reef community.

Within a community, each organism is found in a specific niche. Habitat is the environment of a particular type of organism. For example, ferns are found in moist, shady floor habitats of a forest community.

The habitat of some snails is the leaf litter on the forest floor. In a pond community, a frog’s habitat is near the water’s edge and includes both water and land. Trout fish live in a single community in the deeper, cooler part of the pond.

All biological, chemical and physical factors of a species’ environment are part of its niche. Niche includes what a species needs to survive and reproduce in its environment. Which animals do they eat? How do they get food? How do they attract mates? Where do they live? And what do they do in their environment? Make a niche Habitat is part of an organism’s niche. Ahabitat is sometimes considered the address of the species. Niche is the lifestyle or occupation of a species.

Habitats often overlap and different organisms can be found in the same place. However, no two species can live in the same place at the same time for very long. If they do, they start competing for the same basic and essential needs. We might think that birds have only one place within a tree. If you look carefully, you will find that some birds are insects.

Some eat the seeds while some eat the seeds; Some feed under the tree while others feed in the tree. Some birds also get their food away from the trees. Birds can also have different methods of reproduction. They may have different mating behaviours, and may nest in different places.

Introduction to the concept of ecosystem – What is ecosystem?

In 1935 A.G. The term ecosystem was proposed by Tansley, who defined it as ‘a system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living factors of the environment’. Environmental factors. Thus any unit that includes all the organisms i.e. the community in a given area, interacting with the physical environment so that the flow of energy drives the clearly defined trophic structure, biological diversity and physical cycles within the system is called an ecological system or ecosystem. is referred to as. Ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology. Being a structural unit, an ecosystem has well-defined sub-structures and boundaries, and being a functional unit, it serves as a medium and platform for many processes necessary to maintain steady state equilibrium. Works in Several definitions of ecosystem are available in the literature and these differ depending on its usage and the purpose of its use. Originally the term ecosystem originated from biology and refers to a self-sustaining system. From the perspective of economics and sociology, which are closely related to ecology, the term ecosystem refers to the relationships established among different countries and industries for mutual benefit and sustenance. Ecosystem is also defined as the complex of living organisms, the physical environment and all their interrelationships in a particular unit.

Ecosystem studies are based on the assumption that all life supporting elements, weather natural or anthropogenic, are integral

The part of a network where elements interact. All ecosystems are contained within the largest of all ecosystems, called the ecosphere, which includes the entire physical Earth called the geosphere and all living components called the biosphere.

An ecosystem consists of the biotic community that occurs in an area, and the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are many examples of ecosystems such as a pond, forest or grassland. Boundaries are not easy to determine, although sometimes they may seem obvious, such as along the shoreline of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practical reasons related to the goals of the particular study.

The study of ecosystems primarily deals with the study of some of the processes that link living, or biotic, components with non-living, or abiotic components. Energy transformation and biogeochemical cycles are the main processes that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology. There is no size limit to the ecosystem. They can be as large as a desert or as small as water droplets on a plant leaf.

Plants, soil bacteria, soil nutrients, air space, and light and temperature are all part of an interacting system within a garden.

An ecosystem is self-sustaining when three conditions are met. First, it must have a relatively stable source of energy. Sunlight supplies energy to most ecosystems. Second, the energy in biological molecules must be converted into chemical bond energy by a living system. Plants, algae and some groups of bacteria accomplish this through the process of photosynthesis. Third, organic matter and inorganic nutrients must be recycled for reuse. In most ecosystems, this recycling is done by decomposers.

An ecosystem becomes unstable when any of these three conditions are affected. For example, if the flow of energy from the sun is interrupted, photosynthesis is affected. Without plant food, other organisms and the plants themselves would die. If essential nutrients are unavailable or if some species die out, the ecosystem may lose its ability to sustain itself. To remain stable, an ecosystem needs to maintain a dynamic balance between its biotic and abiotic factors.

Ecological systems are always open i.e. there is an exchange of energy and matter (or input-output relationship) with neighboring systems. Collier et al. distinguished four levels of

Organization in Ecosystem:

Organism level: At this level, ecological studies focus on the study of individuals and are mostly concerned with the physiology, reproduction, development or behavior of individual members of a species or ecosystem.

Population Level A population is a group of individuals of a species living in a certain area. Such groups exhibit characteristics that cannot be explained at the organismal level. The study of populations typically focuses on the habitat and resource needs of individual species, their group behavior, population growth, and whether their abundance is limited or threatened by extinction.

Causes, but focuses.

Level of communities: A community is an assemblage of different populations within a certain area. The interaction between populations is very important for the structure of the community. The study of communities examines how populations of multiple species interact with each other, such as predators and their prey, or competitors that share common needs or resources. So in ecology the term “population” refers to all the members of a particular species within an ecosystem, while “community” is the collection of all the different populations of different species living in an ecosystem.

Ecosystem Level: An ecosystem is a system in which communities interact with the abiotic environment. In ecosystem ecology we put all the levels together and try to understand how the system operates as a whole. This means that instead of worrying primarily about particular species, we try to focus on key functional aspects of the system. These functional aspects may include the amount of energy produced by photosynthesis, how energy or materials flow along multiple steps in a food chain, or controlling the rate at which materials are decomposed or the rate at which nutrients are recycled. things are included. Arrangement
According to the above definition of ecosystem, the earth itself can be considered as an ecosystem. However, for the convenience of study, it is common to limit the range of ecosystems to more easily recognizable units such as a forest, or a lake.

Community

population

creatures

– the population of all the different species living in a particular place

components of an ecosystem

All ecosystems have two main ‘parts’: the living (biotic) part and the non-living (abiotic) part.

biological factors

Biotic components are living organisms classified on the basis of the way they obtain nutrition. Within an ecosystem, organisms that make food by photosynthesis are called producers and plants, some protists and some monerans use energy from the sun in this process. Producers become food and energy sources for consumers. Consumers are organisms that eat other living things. These include animals, fungi, bacteria and some protists.

Consumers that feed directly on producers are called primary consumers. Primary consumers are food for secondary consumers. Animals that obtain almost all of their food resources from plant matter are called herbivores. Secondary and higher level consumers who obtain most of their food by eating the flesh of other animals are called carnivores. Omnivores eat both plants and animals.

Decomposers are the consumers who break down the remains and wastes of plants and animals. They break down organic matter, making its parts available for reuse. The most common decomposers are bacteria and fungi. Scavengers are animals that eat the dead bodies of other animals. Saprobes are organisms that obtain their nutrition from plant and animal remains.

Energy flows through an ecosystem when organisms eat. A high level of consumers is not required for an ecosystem to be self-sustaining.

Producers are called autotrophs, meaning “self-feeders” because they “feed themselves” by making food in the process of photosynthesis. Autotrophs, such as plants, convert inorganic sources of energy into organic forms. Consumers are called heterotrophs meaning “other-feeders” because they feed on other organisms. Heterotrophs require organic molecules to carry out their life functions.

abiotic environment

Abiotic Components: The various physico-chemical components of the ecosystem make up the abiotic composition:

(i) Physical components include sunlight, solar intensity, rainfall, temperature, wind speed and direction, availability of water, soil texture, etc.

(ii) Chemical constituents include major essential nutrients like C, N, P, K, H2, O2, S etc. and micronutrients like Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu etc., toxic substances like salts and pesticides.

These physico-chemical factors of water, air and soil play an important role in the functioning of the ecosystem. The abiotic components of an ecosystem including all the physical and chemical factors present in the ecosystem determine the types of organisms that live in a particular environment and affect the biotic components. In an ecosystem, biotic communities interact with non-living environments. Abiotic environmental factors control the distribution, size, reproduction, nutrition and overall metabolism of living communities.

limiting factor

The effect of environment on plant growth can be easily seen in gardens and house plants. Many plants grow best in fertile, well-draining soil, while others have developed

To grow in more extreme soil conditions. Some plants are shade tolerant; Others thrive under lots of daily sunlight. Gardens and houseplants represent small-scale ecosystems that we can affect by changing the environment.

Can cry One of the characteristics of an ecosystem is that under normal conditions its growth is limited by competition for resources within the system and by external factors such as environmental change. If the presence or absence of a factor limits the growth of the elements of the ecosystem, it is called a limiting factor. There are many fundamental factors that limit the development of ecosystems, including temperature, precipitation, sunlight, soil composition, soil nutrients, etc., which play a major role in the distribution of plant and animal communities and keep on changing. These changes affect the well-being and survival of organisms in an ecosystem because they thrive as long as all the necessary factors for life are available. Maybe someone has tried growing houseplants outside and found that the sun burned the leaves. Perhaps we forgot to water the plants in your garden and we found that they withered or died in the summer heat.

light

Different plant species have different light requirements. Ferns on the forest floor require shade or diffused sunlight. Other plants, such as desert cacti, require bright light. The intensity and duration of light affect the growth and distribution of plants. At the equator, plants receive 12 hours of light per day. In Alaska, plants receive 22 hours of light each day in the middle of summer and about 2 hours each day in the middle of winter.

Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in Nia

Flow ecosystems. This is the energy used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll) during the process of photosynthesis; A process during which plants combine inorganic substances to form organic substances. Visible light is of greatest importance to plants as it is essential for photosynthesis. Factors such as light quality, light intensity and light duration (day length) play important roles in an ecosystem.

Quality of light (wavelength or color):

Plants absorb blue and red light during photosynthesis. The quality of light does not change much in terrestrial ecosystems. In aquatic ecosystems, the quality of light can be a limiting factor. Both blue and red light are absorbed and as a result cannot penetrate deep into the water. To compensate for this, some algae have additional pigments which are

Capable of absorbing other colors as well.

Light intensity (“Light power”)

The intensity of light reaching the earth varies with latitude and season of the year. The Southern Hemisphere receives less than 12 hours of sunlight during the period between March 21 and September 23, but receives more than 12 hours of sunlight during the following six months.

Length of day (length of light period):

Some plants flower only at certain times of the year. One reason for this is that these plants are able to “measure” the length of the night (the period of darkness). However, it was thought that it is the length of the day (light period) to which plants respond and this phenomenon is called photoperiodism. Photoperiodism can be defined as the relative length of daylight and darkness that affects the physiology and behavior of an organism.

Short-day plants

These plants flower only when they experience nights that are longer than a certain critical length. Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum sp.), poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) and prickly apple (Datura stramonium) are examples of short day plants.

Long Day Plants

These plants flower if they experience nights that are shorter than a certain critical length. Spinach, wheat, barley, clover and radish are examples of long day plants.

day-neutral plants

Flowering of day-neutral plants is not affected by the length of the night. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculeutum) and maize plant (Zea mays) are examples of day-neutral plants.

The following definitions are also important:

phototropism

Phototropism is the directional growth of plants in response to light where the direction of the stimulus determines the direction of movement; stems display positive

Phototropism means when they grow up they turn towards the light.

Phototaxis

Phototaxis is the movement of an entire organism in response to a unidirectional light source, where the stimulus determines the direction of movement.

Photokinesis

Variation in the intensity of the locomotory activity of animals that depends on the intensity of the light stimulus, and not on its direction, is called photokinesis.

Photonasty

Photonasty is the movement of parts of a plant in response to a light source, but the direction of the stimulus does not determine the plant’s direction of movement.

Plants have different light requirements and as a result different layers or stratification can be seen in the ecosystem. Plants that grow well in bright sunlight are called heliophytes (Greek helios, sun) and plants that grow well in shady conditions are known as psychrophytes (Greek skeia, shade).

temperature

Temperature affects the rate of metabolic processes, reproduction and survival of plants. air temperature difference

Creates wind movement that moves moisture towards or away from plants. Air temperature determines the amount of water vapor and other gases that air can hold. Soil temperature determines the rate of water absorption by plant roots and the rate of root development.

The distribution of plants and animals is affected by extreme temperatures, for example hot weather. The presence or absence of frost is a particularly important determinant of plant distribution because many plants cannot prevent their tissues from freezing or survive the freezing and thawing process. The following are examples of temperature effects with ecosystems:

The opening of flowers of different plants during the day and night is often due to the temperature difference between day and night;

The seeds of some plants (biennials) usually germinate in spring or summer;

This phenomenon is well observed in carrots and is called vernalization;

Some fruit trees, such as peaches, require a cold period each year to bloom in spring;
Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter and go into a state of dormancy, where the buds are covered to protect them from the cold;
Seeds of many plants, eg. Peaches and plums must be exposed to cold periods before they germinate; it cold

ensures that the seeds do not germinate during autumn, but after winter, when the seedlings have better chances of survival;

In animals, a distinction is made between ectothermic (“cold-blooded” or poikilothermic) animals and endothermic (“warm-blooded” or isothermic) animals, although the distinction is not clear;
Desert conditions have greater temperature variation between day and night and organisms have different periods of activity, eg. Many cacti flower at night and are pollinated by nocturnal insects;
Seasonal changes also have a great impact on animal life in the ecosystem; Hibernation is common in reptiles and some mammals in southern Africa, but bears in the Northern Hemisphere hibernate; Some animals store fat or other resources during favorable periods (often summer and autumn) and become inactive (this is called hibernation), there are also animals that remain inactive in hot and dry conditions and this is called hibernation. Known as beautification; Examples of such animals are snails and the African lung-fish;
Some animals have seasonal movements; This phenomenon is called seasonal migration, examples of such animals are migratory locusts, butterflies and various marine animals such as whales, penguins and sea turtles.

water

The distribution of the species depends on the humidity. Some creatures live in rain forests where it rains daily. Others are adapted to life in deserts where water is scarce. Well aerated soil is full of air passages allowing movement of gases like

Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Moisture clings to the surfaces of soil particles, creating conditions that support bacteria, fungi and protists. These soil microbes make chemical nutrients available to the plants. Some microbes use up the nutrients, thus slowing plant growth.

Plant and animal habitats vary from completely aquatic environments to very dry deserts. Water is essential to life and all living beings depend on it for survival, especially in desert areas.

Water Requirements of Plants

Plants can be classified into 3 groups according to their water requirement: Hydrophytes: Hydrophytes are plants that grow in water. Water lilies and reeds. Mesophytes: Mesophytes are plants with average water requirement e.g.

Rose, Sweet Pea.

Xerophytes: Xerophytes are plants that grow in dry environments where they often experience water scarcity eg. Cacti and often succulents.

Plant adaptations to survive without water include reverse stomatal rhythm, sunken stomata, thick cuticles, small leaves (or absence of leaves), and the presence of water-storing tissues.

Water requirements of animals

Terrestrial animals are also exposed to desiccation and some interesting adaptations are mentioned here:

Water loss is limited by covering the body eg. chitinous body covering of insects, scales of reptiles, feathers of birds and hair of mammals;
Some mammals have few or no sweat glands and use other cooling devices, which are less dependent or independent of evaporative cooling;
Animal tissues can be tolerant to water deficit eg. The camel can live without water for long periods because of this adaptation in its body tissues;
There are also known cases where insects are able to absorb water

Water vapor directly from the atmosphere for example dew from coastal fog is an important source of moisture for the insects of the Namib.

Atmospheric gases.

The most important gases used by plants and animals are oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

Oxygen: Oxygen is used by all living organisms during respiration.
Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is used by green plants during photosynthesis.
Nitrogen: by some bacteria and through the action of electricity

Through this nitrogen is made available to the plants.

Air

Global-scale winds or air currents result from a complex interaction between the expansion and upwelling (convection) of warm air in the mid-latitudes. This has various effects on the Earth’s rotation and results in a centrifugal force that lifts the air at the equator. This force is known as the Coriolis force and deflects winds to their left in the Southern Hemisphere and to their right in the Northern Hemisphere. Winds carry water vapor that can condense and fall as rain, snow, or hail. Wind plays a role in the pollination and dispersal of seeds of some plants, as well as the dispersal of some animals such as insects. Wind erosion can remove and redistribute topsoil, especially where vegetation has been reduced. The hot berg winds result in dryness which creates a fire hazard. If plants are exposed to strong prevailing winds they are usually smaller than plants in less windy conditions.

soil (edaphic factor)

These factors include soil texture, soil aeration, soil temperature, soil water, soil solution and pH, as well as soil organisms and decaying matter.

The size of soil particles varies from microscopic particles called clay to larger particles called sand. Loamy soil is a mixture of sand and clay particles. Sandy soils are suitable for growing plants because they are well aerated, excess water drains quickly, they heat up quickly during the day and are easy to cultivate. Sandy soils are unsuitable because they do not hold much water and dry out quickly, and the soil nutrients needed for plant growth are low.

Clay soils are suitable for plant growth because they hold large amounts of water and are rich in mineral nutrients. They are unsuitable because they are badly aerated, quickly become waterlogged and are difficult to cultivate; It is cold even during winters. Loamy soil has desirable properties of both sand and clay – it has high water holding capacity, good aeration, good nutrient content and is easily cultivated.

Soil Air: Soil air is found in the spaces between the soil particles that are not filled with soil water. The amount of air in soil depends on how firmly the soil is compacted. Well-aerated soil has at least 20% of its volume composed of air.
Soil temperature: Soil temperature is an important ecological factor. It is found that the soil temperature below a depth of about 30 cm remains almost constant

During the day but there is a difference in seasonal temperature. Little decay occurs by decay-causing micro-organisms at low temperatures.

Soil water: Soil water can be classified into three types, namely hygroscopic, capillary and gravity water. Hygroscopic water forms a thin film of water around each soil particle. Capillary water is water that is held in the small spaces between soil particles and gravimetric water is water that flows downward through the soil.

Soil slurry: Soil slurry is the decaying remains of plants and animals, together with animal excretory products and faeces, forming humus. This increases the fertility of the soil.

pH: The acidity or alkalinity of the soil (soil pH) affects biological activity and the availability of certain minerals in the soil. Thus soil pH has a greater impact on plant growth and development. Some plants such as azaleas, Ericas, ferns and many Protea species do best in acidic soils (soils with a pH below 7), while lucerne and many xerophytes do better in alkaline soils (soils with a pH above 7).

geographic factor

These factors are related to the physical nature of the area, such as altitude, slope of the land, and the position of the area with respect to the sun or rain-bearing winds. Elevation plays a role in vegetation zones. Slopes are important when considering soil surface temperature on north-sloping land, on the plain and on south-sloping land. In South Africa the rain-bearing south-eastern slopes are covered by forest in some areas, while the windward slopes are rain-shadowed and thorny shrubs are often found growing on these slopes. A very good example of this is the south east wind blowing in Cape Town.

laws governing limiting factors

The “law” of big lies minimum:

The required material available will be limited to amounts approaching the minimum required amount required under “steady state” conditions and the concept is

Also called Liebig’s minimum rule. According to the law, the growth of crop plants depends on the amount of nutrients which are available in minimum quantity. He therefore came to the conclusion that plant growth is limited by essential nutrients that are in short supply relative to the plant’s needs. Liebig focused more on factors such as light, temperature, nutrients and essential elements. He explained the absence of some plants in the shaded areas on the Alps or the lack of vegetation above certain altitudes.

Tried to They gave justification in terms of insufficient light, temperature or nutrients. His hypothesis was that crop yields are often limited not by nutrients that are in abundant supply such as carbon dioxide and water, but by others that are needed in lesser amounts and are in short supply such as zinc in modern agriculture. This rule of minimum is less applicable under “transient state” conditions, when the amounts, and hence the effects, of multiple components are changing rapidly.

Shelford’s Law of Tolerance:

In 1913 V.E. Shelford expanded the concept of limiting factors to include the limiting effect of maxima as well as minima on organisms. He proposed that not only can a factor be limiting in small amounts, but very high amounts can also prove detrimental to the growth and development of an organism. Thus, any environmental factor that is below the critical minimum requirements or above the critical maximum requirements of an organism will certainly limit the growth of the organism in a given region. In other words attendance and success

The state of an organism depends on the fulfillment of a complex of conditions. The absence or failure of an organism to be controlled by a qualitative or quantitative reduction with respect to any one of a number of factors may approach the tolerance limit for that organism.

Organisms have ecological maximum and minimum requirements for each environmental factor. These are the limits of tolerance of the organism to that factor. According to the law of tolerance, each environmental factor has two zones i.e. zone of tolerance and zone of intolerance (Nair, 1990).

i) Zone of tolerance is the zone which is favorable for the growth and development of the organism and is made up of parts
a) Optimum area which is most favorable for growth and development

Life is maximum.

b) The critical minimum area and the minimum limit of any environmental factor beyond which the growth and development of the organism ceases.
c) Critical maximum zone is the maximum limit of any environmental factor beyond which organisms usually stop their normal activities.
i) Intolerable Zone: This zone is well below the critical minimum zone and above the critical maximum zone. This region is unfavorable for the growth and development of organisms and they cannot survive here for long.

Combined Concept of Limiting Factors:

The survival and success of an organism or group of organisms depends on a complex set of conditions. A more general and useful concept of limiting factor can be obtained by combining the idea of a minimum and the concept of limiting factors. It is based on i) the quality of the material which is the minimum requirement and the physical factors which are important and ii) the tolerance limits of the organisms to the different components of the environment (Odom, 1971).

Conditions of existence as regulatory factors:

Light, temperature and water are important ecological environmental factors on land; Light, temperature and salinity are the big three in the ocean. Other factors such as oxygen in fresh water may be of major importance. All these physical conditions of existence can be limiting factors not only in the harmful sense, but also regulatory factors in the beneficial sense – that is, adapted organisms respond to these factors in such a way that the community of organisms maintains maximum homeostasis under the conditions. receives. Blackman (1912) stated that a process is affected by a number of factors and the rate controlling ones are slowest and are known as limiting factors.

Functional aspect of an ecosystem

The functional aspect of an ecosystem can be studied in terms of energy flow,

food chain,

nutrient or biogeochemical cycles

flow of energy in the ecosystem

Along with nutrients, energy is the main source of life. The most important energy source for life on Earth is, of course, the Sun, but other energy inputs are cosmic radiation, the Moon’s tides, and forces from Earth such as gravity and heat. Secondary sources of energy available to ecosystems are currents, waves, currents, and wind. Ecosystems use a higher grade of energy to dissipate a lower grade of energy ie heat.

Green plants are able to combine CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates by absorbing light in pigment cells (containing chlorophyll):

6 CO2 + 12 H2O 2.8MJ C6H12O6 + 6CO2 + 6 H2O

(by air) (by air)

These carbohydrates, in one form or another, constitute the living tissue or biomass of plants. However, not all the energy fixed in this way is retained. Plants also require energy for maintenance activities. This energy consumption is called respiration and can be represented generally as follows:

6CO2 + 12 H2O metabolic enzymes C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + energy

(by air) (by air)

Thus biomass accumulation in green plants (or net primary production) = energy fixed in photosynthesis – energy lost by respiration.

Typically, biological communities consist of what are called “functional groups”. A functional group is a biological category composed of organisms that perform mostly the same type of function in a system; For example, all photosynthetic plants or primary producers form a functional group. membership in the functional group on

depends not so much on who the actual players (species) are, only on what function they perform in the ecosystem.

As discussed solar energy is converted into chemical energy through photosynthesis by plants, which also incorporate many inorganic elements in their protoplasm.

and compounds. These green plants are later grazed on by heterotrophs. All the food that we or other animals consume are produced directly or indirectly by plants. The energy we get from plants by burning wood or eating them is a representation of the solar energy captured by the plants. We depend on the accumulated resources of solar energy

food chain and food web

Very little is wasted in a self-sustaining ecosystem. Herbivores, like grasshoppers, eat the leaves of plants. In return, carnivores like snakes or frogs eat the locusts. Other animals such as hawks may eat these carnivores. When any of these organisms die, the decomposers in turn consume them. After the organisms decompose, their nutrients are eventually taken up and used by green plants. Thus, matter is transferred through the ecosystem. Nutrients are transferred from producers to consumers in a feeding relationship known as a food chain. Every organism that eats or decomposes another is thus a link in that chain.

Food chains are often unstable because changes in the population size of any species can affect the chain in either direction. For example, if a primary consumer depends on a plant species for its food, the loss of that species may result in the death of the consumer. As an example, giant pandas are nearly extinct because they feed almost exclusively on bamboo shoots. These plants are in short supply as panda habitat is being destroyed by humans.

Such simple food chains are rare in nature. Food chains are often observed in ecosystems that are attempting to re-establish themselves following volcanic activity or fires. Food chains are also observed in newly formed areas such as new islands. The different trophic levels of producers and consumers in a food chain are called trophic levels. Producers belong to the first trophic level, primary consumers to the second, secondary consumers to the third. In nature, most organisms depend on a variety of food sources for their nutritional needs. Animals can eat many different types of food at the same or different trophic levels. Depending on the availability of specific foods, foxes may eat mice, rabbits, berries, or insects. Sea otters eat sea urchins, mussels, and abalone. Bears eat plants as well as fish.

Omnivores are both primary and secondary consumers depending on whether they are eating plant or animal matter. Complex interrelationships begin to develop involving different trophic levels. Food chains are linked together in a more complex food sequence known as a food web. Food webs represent a more diverse food sequence and provide greater stability to the ecosystem.

Figure 1.3 depicts a simple food chain, in which sunlight energy captured by photosynthesis of plants flows from trophic level to trophic level through the food chain. The atrophic level is composed of organisms that live in the same way, that is, they are all primary producers (plants), primary consumers (herbivores) or secondary consumers (carnivores). Dead tissue and waste products are produced at all levels. Scavengers, detritivores and decomposers collectively account for the use of all such “waste”. Consumers of carcasses and fallen leaves may be other animals, such as crows and beetles, but ultimately it is the microbes that do the work of decomposition. Let’s fulfill Not surprisingly, the amount of primary production varies greatly from place to place due to differences in the amount of solar radiation and the availability of nutrients and water.

Energy transfer through the food chain is inefficient. This means that less energy is available at the herbivore level than at the primary producer level, less at the carnivore level, and so on. The result is a pyramid of energy with important implications for understanding the amount of life that can be supported.

Usually when we think of food chains we imagine green plants, herbivores etc. These are called grazing food chains, as living plants are directly consumed.

grass grasshopper bird hawk

In many circumstances the major energy input is not the green plants, but the dead organic matter of animals and plant bodies decomposed by microorganisms and then decomposed organisms. These are called detritus food chain. Examples include forest floor or woodland streams, salt marshes, and most obviously in forested areas.

Ocean floor in very deep regions where sunlight is extinguished thousands of meters above.

The organization of biological systems is shown by a simple “chain”.

is much more complex than is presented. Often, several different species may use the same item for food and one species may eat different species of food organisms.

food web

A food chain represents only part of the energy flow through an ecosystem and our ecosystem may consist of several interrelated food chains. These relationships are called food webs (Fig. 1.4).

Food webs can be very complex, where it appears that “everything is connected to everything,” and it is important to understand what the most important relationships are in a particular food web.

Function: Energy flow and cycling of materials. these are the two processes

Connected, but they are not quite the same.

Energy usually enters biological systems in the form of light energy from the sun and is converted into chemical energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and respiration in producers. This energy is transferred to the consumers and ultimately the energy is converted into heat energy in life processes. This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as heat; Once lost it cannot be recycled. Without a constant input of solar energy, biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the earth is an open system with respect to energy.

ecological pyramid

A food chain can be represented quantitatively (with numbers) as a pyramid of numbers, one for the previous food chain at the bottom.

Foxes are smaller in number than rabbits; Which makes sense because a fox must eat many rabbits in order to get enough energy to survive.

An ecological pyramid shows the relative sizes of different components at different trophic levels of a food chain. A trophic level refers to each stage (shown as a horizontal bar on the ecological pyramid). We use three types of ecological pyramids: numbers, biomass, and energy.

The pyramid of numbers shows the raw number of each species at each trophic level. The top example is a typical food chain with a large number of producers but a decreasing number of consumers. However, if the producer was a tree followed by insects, the bottom bar would appear smaller because many organisms feed on a tree. In this example a pyramid of biomass is more useful because the tree is very large.

In the following example, the pyramid of both numbers and biomass shows a small productive bar; It was discussed under the previous heading – it makes no sense. This is because phytoplankton reproduce very quickly. However, when we

Representing this information in a pyramid of energy, we get a real pyramid.

Plotting the energy will always give a perfect pyramid because it is impossible to create new energy so a trophic level will always be smaller than the one below it.

nutrient cycling

Nutrients within an ecosystem can cycle between the biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere. For each element, the exact pattern of cycling is quite unique and may involve a number of abiotic and biotic processes. About 20 to 30 nutrients are required for metabolic processes in different types of organisms. The most commonly used nutrients are called macronutrients.

Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorus are the most common macronutrients and they usually account for more than 1% of an organism’s dry weight. Essential elements in very small amounts are called micronutrients. Nutrients can enter or leave the nutrient stores of an ecosystem through various processes.

In a stable ecosystem, nutrient losses are generally small. Disturbance can substantially increase the amount of nutrients removed from an ecosystem. The main processes that add nutrients to ecosystems are weathering, atmospheric input, and biological fixation. Nutrient losses in ecosystems can occur through erosion, leaching, gaseous emissions, and migration of biomass and through harvesting. The magnitude of nutrient loss in an ecosystem can often exceed input.

The most active interface of nutrient cycling within an ecosystem is the top layer of soil. There are many types of organisms found in the soil layer whose primary function in the ecosystem is to decompose organic matter. Decomposition breaks down complex organic molecules into much smaller inorganic molecules and atoms. This inorganic matter can re-enter the ecosystem when it is absorbed by plant roots for metabolism and growth. Soil also receives nutrient inputs through organic fixation, atmospheric input, and weathering.

Elements follow a circular path from the abiotic environment to living organisms and back again to the environment. This two-way exchange between living and non-living components within an ecosystem is called a cycle. Chemicals are continuously removed from the atmosphere, water and land. They are used by living organisms and then released in one form or the other.

The living return to the environment. abiogeochemical cycle is cyclic motion

of chemicals between living and non-living components of the environment. Biogeochemical cycles are also called nutrient cycling.

Organisms require various chemical elements for growth and maintenance. The Earth contains only a certain amount of these chemical elements. It is important that they are recycled quickly and efficiently. Elements such as carbon, oxygen and nitrogen are found in large quantities in the oceans and atmosphere. these elements

Often these areas are found combined with each other. Biogeochemical cycles are often classified by the storage site or reservoir of the element. Carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen participate in the gaseous cycle because of their atmospheric reservoirs and the fact that these elements are most often found in gaseous form. The elements phosphorus, sulphur, calcium, magnesium and copper are found bound in the solid matter of the earth’s crust. These elements are involved in sedimentary cycles because they are usually found in solid form in rock.

The hydrologic cycle is the movement of water from the ocean to the land and back again to the ocean. The movement of elements within and between air, land and water reservoirs is slow compared to the movement of these elements between organisms.

Many elements are found combined in nature. Thus, biogeochemical cycles are often interconnected. Oxygen makes up about 20 percent of the atmospheric gases. Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide, makes up about 0.03 percent of those gases.

Oxygen is part of the water molecule. Both carbon dioxide and oxygen dissolve in water. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water combine to form organic compounds. During the process, oxygen is released. Organisms use oxygen in aerobic respiration, releasing carbon dioxide and water.

Elements such as carbon, nitrogen or phosphorus enter living organisms in different ways. Plants obtain elements from the surrounding environment, water or soil. Animals can also obtain elements directly from the physical environment, but usually they obtain these primarily as a result of consumption of other organisms. These materials are transformed biochemically within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to excretion or decomposition, they revert to the inorganic state. Bacteria often accomplish this process through a process called decomposition.

These substances are not destroyed or lost during decomposition, so the Earth is a closed system with respect to the elements. elements cycle endlessly between them

Biotic and abiotic states within an ecosystem. Those elements whose supply limits biological activity are called nutrients.

carbon cycle

The carbon cycle models the movement and storage of carbon in the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Carbon is stored in the biosphere in the form of living organisms; In the form of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere; as soil organic matter in the lithosphere, as fossil fuel deposits, and as sedimentary rock deposits; and in the form of carbon dioxide gas in the oceans and in the form of calcium carbonate shells in marine organisms.

Carbon dioxide moves from the atmosphere to producers who use it in photosynthesis. Consumers and decomposers feed on producers and each other. Carbon is passed through the food chain. During respiration, these organisms release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere or water. Carbon dioxide also enters the atmosphere when fossil fuels and wood are burned. Volcanic activity and weathering of carbon-rich rocks also add carbon dioxide.

A large amount of carbon is found in sea water. It dissolves as carbon dioxide or is deposited as calcium carbonate in rocks and animal shells. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the water into the atmosphere. It returns to the water through rain. The remains of plants and animals can be condensed into carbonate rock. Limestone is a typical example.

Humans have altered the carbon cycle through the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation and land-use change. The net result of these processes is an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle is one of the most important nutrient cycles with respect to terrestrial ecosystems. Despite the fact that the atmosphere contains 78 percent nitrogen gas, most plants are limited in their growth due to the availability of nitrogen. Only a few organisms have the ability to use atmospheric nitrogen. Most organisms prefer nitrogen in the solid nitrate form. Besides the atmosphere, other important stores of nitrogen are the soil and the organic molecules of life. Nitrogen is added to ecosystems mainly in solid form

Biochemical determination by specialized microorganisms such as bacteria, actinomycetes and cyanobacteria. Bacteria convert nitrogen gas into nitrate or nitrite ions, ammonia gas or ammonium ions. Nitrates dissolve in soil water. They are taken up by plant roots and used to produce proteins and other organic nitrogen molecules.

These nitrogenous molecules pass through the food chain

They are Animal wastes are converted into ammonia or ammonium ions by decomposers. The ammonium ions are converted to nitrites or nitrates and used by the bacteria for energy. Other bacteria can convert ammonia, nitrates, or nitrites back to nitrogen gas.

Humans have also severely altered the nature of this nutrient cycle, generally by making nitrogen more available in solid forms.

phosphorus cycle

Phosphates in rock and soil are taken up by plants. Plants are eaten by herbivores and the phosphorus passes through the food chain. Phosphates re-enter the soil in the form of animal waste. This part of the cycle is relatively intense and localized.

Some phosphates enter water systems and eventually find their way into the ocean. Phosphate is used by algae and the algae are eaten by fish. In turn, the fish are eaten by the birds.

The waste of birds, rich in phosphorus, accumulates on the islands. Some phosphorus is washed into the oceans. Ocean sediments attract and bind phosphorus very strongly. Over long periods of time, phosphorus returns to land as mountains or islands rise from sea level. As phosphorus is weathered or degraded, it is returned to the oceans or passed through the food chain. This part of the cycle can take up to a million years.

homeostasis

Ecosystems have a unique property of self-regulation. Ecosystems consist of various sub-components of biotic and abiotic nature, which are interconnected and inter-dependent, having an inherent quality to resist change. This means that the ecosystem has the ability to tolerate external disturbance or stress. This property is known as homeostasis. Ecosystems have a definite structure consisting of certain types of living organisms, which have a definite place and role in the ecosystem, as defined by their position in food-

Together, in interaction with abiotic components, these ecosystems perform functions of energy flow and material cycling, and ultimately yield a desired output in the form of productivity. Each ecosystem can operate in a range of conditions depending on its homeostasis (ability to resist change). Within its homeostatic plateau, the ecosystem has the ability to trigger certain feedback mechanisms that help maintain ecosystem functioning by countering disturbances. This type of divergence-reactive feedback is known as a negative feedback mechanism.

Such feedback loops help in maintaining the ecological balance of the ecosystem. A balanced ecosystem consists of basic biological components that have evolved over time to suit environmental conditions. Under a given set of physical environment, the flow of energy and the cycling of nutrients in such an ecosystem occur in a definite pattern.

However, as the external perturbation or stress increases beyond a certain threshold (exceeding the homeostatic plateau of the ecosystem), the equilibrium of the ecosystem is disrupted. This is because now another type of feedback mechanism, which is the divergence acceleration mechanism, starts working. Such responses are called positive feedback mechanisms, which further exacerbate the perturbation caused by the external stress and thus drive the ecosystem away from its optimal conditions, ultimately leading to the collapse of the system.

different types of ecosystems

There are basically two types of ecosystems; terrestrial and aquatic. All other sub-ecosystems come under these two.

terrestrial ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystems are found everywhere except water bodies. They are broadly classified as:

forest ecosystem

These are ecosystems where abundance of vegetation (plants) is observed and a large number of organisms live in relatively small areas. Therefore, the density of life in forest ecosystems is very high. Any small change in the ecosystem can affect the entire balance and cause the ecosystem to collapse. You can also see amazing diversity in the fauna of these ecosystems. They are again divided into certain types.

Tropical Evergreen Forests: Tropical forests that receive an average of 80 to 400 inches of rainfall in a year. These forests are characterized by dense vegetation consisting of tall trees of different levels. Each level shelters different types of animals.

Tropical Deciduous Forest: Dense shrubs and bushes rule here with a wide range of trees. These types of forests are found in many parts of the world and are home to a great diversity of flora and fauna.

Temperate Evergreen Forests: These have very few trees but are made of ferns and mosses. Trees have pointed leaves which reduce transpiration.

Temperate Deciduous Forests: These forests are found in moist temperate regions with sufficient rainfall. Winters and summers are well defined and trees shed their leaves during winter.

Let’s take

Taiga: Located just south of the Arctic regions, taiga is characterized by evergreen conifers. While the temperature remains below zero for about six months, the rest of the year it buzzes with insects and migratory birds.

Desert ecosystem

Desert ecosystems are found in areas with less than 25 cm of annual rainfall. They occupy about 17 percent of all land on the planet. Due to very high temperature, strong sunlight and less water availability, flora and fauna are very poorly developed and rare. Vegetation is mainly shrubs, bushes, some grasses

The leaves and stems of these plants are modified to conserve water. The best-known desert plants are succulents such as prickly-leafed cacti. Animal life includes insects, reptiles, birds, camels, all of which are adapted to xeric (desert) conditions.

grassland ecosystem

Grasslands are found in both temperate and tropical regions of the world but the ecosystems differ slightly. The area is mainly grassland with a small amount of shrubs and trees. The main vegetation is grasses, legumes and plants belonging to the composite family. Many grazing animals, herbivores and insectivores are found in grasslands. There are two main types of grassland ecosystems:

Savannah: These tropical grasslands are seasonally dry with few individual trees. They support a large number of grazers and hunters.
Prairie – This is a temperate grassland. It is completely devoid of trees and big bushes. Prairies can be classified as tall grass, mixed grass and short grass prairie.

The Mountain Ecosystem

The mountainous land provides a scattered but diverse range of habitats that house a large range of plants and animals. Higher altitudes usually have harsher environmental conditions, and only treeless alpine vegetation is found. The animals living here have thick fur coats that protect them from the cold and hibernate during the winter months. The lower slopes are usually covered with coniferous forests.

aquatic ecosystem

An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem located in a body of water. It also includes aquatic fauna, vegetation and the properties of water. There are two types of aquatic ecosystems, marine and freshwater.

marine ecosystem

Marine ecosystems are the largest ecosystems with coverage of approximately 71% of the Earth’s surface and contain 97% of the planet’s water. Marine ecosystems have high levels of dissolved salts and minerals in their waters. The different divisions of the marine ecosystem are:

Oceanic: The relatively shallow part of the ocean that lies on a continental shelf.

Deep: Bottom or deep water.

Benthic: Bottom substrates.

Inter-tidal: The area between high and low tide.

Estuary: Semi-enclosed water body that has a free connection to the open ocean, thus highly influenced by tidal action, and within which seawater mixes with fresh water from land drainage.

coral reefs: formed by huge colonies of tiny animals called polyps that are close

Relatives of jellyfish. They gradually build up reefs by secreting a protective crust of limestone.

Hydrothermal vents: where chemosynthetic bacteria form the basis of food.

A wide variety of organisms are found in marine ecosystems including brown algae, dino-flagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks.

freshwater ecosystem

Unlike marine ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems cover only 0.8% of the Earth’s surface and contain 0.009% of the total water. There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:

Lentic: Still or slow-moving water such as pools, ponds, and lakes.

Lotic: Fast flowing water such as streams and rivers.

Wetlands: Places where the soil is saturated or waterlogged for at least some of the time.

These ecosystems are home to amphibians, reptiles and about 41% of the world’s fish species. Fast-moving turbid waters typically contain higher concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slower-moving waters of pools.

ecosystem geography

There are many different ecosystems: rain forests and tundra, coral reefs and ponds, grasslands and deserts. Climate differences from place to place largely determine the types of ecosystems we see. How terrestrial ecosystems appear to us is largely influenced by the dominant vegetation.

biome

The term “biome” is used to describe the dominant vegetation type spread over a large geographic area, such as tropical rain forest, grassland, tundra, etc. It is never used for aquatic systems, such as ponds or coral reefs. It always refers to a vegetation range that is dominant over a very large geographic scale, and is somewhat broader than an ecosystem.

The important message is that there are different interactions between plants, animals and microorganisms – all being implemented by the principles described above.

environmental protection

Three specific, distinct but related areas fell out of the mainstream domain of economic theory

in the last six decades. They are: (i) environmental economics; (ii) Natural resource economics and

(iii) Ecological economics. While the emergence of environmental economics can be traced to the 1960s, natural resource economics made its presence felt in the 1950s with the founding of Resources for the Future (RFF) in 1952. Ecological economics was solidified by the late 1980s. All of these offshoots originated from the basic premise that the mainstream neo-classical model of market-based allocation systems was not able to incorporate the environmental restrictions that were becoming increasingly apparent around the world.

Even though concern about nature and the uncontrolled consumption of its resources emerged as the initial motivation for the emergence of these three distinct branches of economics, the approaches taken by each of them have been characteristically different. Let us know about such differences. Natural resource economics is specifically concerned with the unrestrained use of resources provided by nature which are divisible in consumption among their users but restricted in supply, in view of the fact that they are produced by nature and their availability is a natural factor in their development. subject to rate. Some such examples are: forestry, fisheries, mineral resources etc. However, being divisible, they are allocable on margin. Furthermore, natural resources are used as inputs in the production process and serve the dynamism of the economic system.

Environmental economics, on the other hand, deals with environmental resources that are not divisible among users in terms of consumption. Air, water bodies – such as rivers, oceans – are some typical examples of environmental resources. In contrast, natural resources are being used as inputs, environmental resources are affected by the activities of the economic system – pollution. Ecological economics – a relatively new entrant in the field of knowledge – was intended to bring together economists and ecologists to study the interrelationships between the socio-economic and the environment.

ecosystem. “Ecological economists are clearly inclined to consider ethical and philosophical issues, such as intra-generational and inter-generational equity, and even, in some cases, to recognize non-human values.” (Beder 2011, p. 146)

One thing is worth noting here. Even though all these branches were developed to take care of some of the shortcomings of the neo-classical model, natural resource economics and environmental economics adapted to the fundamental principles of neo-classical economics. Ecological economics – although claimed to be an attempt to integrate economics and ecology and hence a departure from neo-classical economics – is often alleged to be influenced by the fundamental philosophy of mainstream economic thought centered around the concept of markets.

Fundamentals of Neo Classical Economics

The fundamental structure of neo-classical economics is characterized by the existence of a perfectly competitive market for everything produced and exchanged in it. A market system consists of several such perfectly competitive markets. economic efficiency and progress are maximized if all

Markets work in a perfectly competitive manner. However, the existence of a perfectly competitive market is based on certain assumptions. they are:

Existence of a complete set of perfect markets: All goods and services that can be exchanged through a market system must be exchanged individually through a competitive market. The efficiency argument in favor of a market system would collapse in the event that a market either does not exist for a product (service) or operates inefficiently (in the sense of being imperfect).
Rationality: Every participant in the market, either as a producer or a consumer, seeks to maximize his objective – satisfaction while consuming and profit while producing. This is possible because everyone prefers more satisfaction or benefit to less and no one is satisfied with what is available.
Perfect Knowledge: Both the producer and the consumer have perfect knowledge while taking economic decisions. Each of them not only knows the prices of all goods and services obtained from the market, but also knows everything about their qualitative characteristics. Furthermore, they are aware of the behavior of other buyers and sellers operating in the market. They also know about the steps taken by the government. Hence there is no risk or uncertainty about the future and the predictions made by them about future outcomes are absolutely correct.
Property rights: The property rights over the product or service exchanged through the market are well defined and such rights transfer from the seller to the buyer in an instant and cost-free manner, when exchanged in the market. it happens.

Diminishing returns: Marginal satisfaction from an increased unit of a

As its consumption level increases, the good or service gradually goes down.

Sales and purchase agreements

Neta: This condition is necessary to ensure equilibrium. In the case of a salesperson walking in with an inventory, they are considered to have been sold or not produced. To ensure such equality, it is also assumed that transactions are instantaneous and costless.

Unique Equilibrium: Equilibrium is achieved when both buyer and seller are satisfied with the maximum objectives – satisfaction for the buyer and profit for the seller. Convexity in the choice and production sets ensures that the equilibrium is unique with no possibility of multiple equilibria.
Multiple participants with freedom to enter and leave the market: To ensure an optimal equilibrium, it is imperative that neither buyers nor sellers dominate the market process and influence the price. This assumption takes care of such requirement. Otherwise the market may result in an inefficient equilibrium.
Freedom of demand and supply: The behavior of buyers is different from that of sellers, so that the act of buying does not affect the sale, and vice versa. They interact only through the mechanism of the market.
Only “goods” are exchanged: all goods and services produced and sold provide positive utility to consumers and therefore positive profits to producers. There is no possibility of producing a “bad” that, when consumed, has the potential to give negative utility to buyers.
And finally, no externality: Externality refers to a situation where the act of exchange between buyer and seller does not affect the well-being or interest of any third person. This condition is ensured by the assumption that all consumers are equal in terms of their choice patterns and

So all the vendors are also in terms of their production behaviour. Moreover, the economic activity of one does not affect the activity of the other. Thus an externality can be considered a consequence of an economic activity that affects other parties without being reflected in market prices.

The birth of environmental economics

Environmental economics enters the field as a new discipline because examples are found when many of these assumptions needed to validate market-centered arguments of efficiency are found to be untenable in the case of environmental resources. Let’s take a look at some of the assumptions once again.

Existence of a full set of precise markets: Markets do not exist for many wastes generated from a production process and dumped into the air, land or water as pollutants. Therefore their economic values are uncertain.
Full knowledge: Neither the producer nor the consumer has full knowledge about the implications and effects of pollutants. So they cannot decide on their optimal choice.
Property rights: It is difficult to clearly define property rights over these outflows.

Diminishing returns: This assumption may not be valid for a product – in fact, pollution – that gives negative satisfaction on consumption.

Equity of sale and purchase: Environmental economics deals with products that have producers but no willing buyers.
Unique equilibrium: The production set of environmental pollutants can be non-convex, giving rise to the possibility of multiple equilibria.
Multiple participants with freedom to enter and leave the market: Producers dominate the exchange process because no market exists for environmental pollutants.
There is only the possibility of producing a “bad” that has the potential to provide negative utility to buyers when consumed.
Environmental goods, being indivisible in consumption, are often subject to externalities.

Analytical Approaches Used in Environmental Economics

The fact that environmental goods do not clearly obey many of the fundamental premises of neoclassical economics led to the birth of a separate branch of knowledge known as environmental economics. As we shall see, the analytical approach to this new branch of knowledge has been primarily intended to bring ideas for making environmental goods accountable to the fundamental premises of the neo-classical market-driven paradigm in order to address issues related to environmental goods. rigorous analytical models to do this. grow meaningfully. Emphasis is placed on the creation of virtual markets for environmental goods, on the one hand, to address the issue of their efficient pricing, and on the other, the identification of sources of market failure in allocating resources efficiently between different uses and resources. Can be done

Designing policies to enable government to intervene to ‘correct’ market failure. Such an effort is made up of three phases.

Step 1: Make environmental goods divisible and capable of being distributed among people who are willing to pay relevant (equilibrium) prices to consume them. In other words, create a market for a specific environment

good, construction supply and demand curve, take

They interact with each other and hence determine the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity supplied.

Step 2: Determine the appropriate level of environmental protection using various environmental commodity assessment methods. Such evaluation methods are generally

But they construct imaginary or manifest demand curves for environmental goods and compare them with the cost of supply, which includes the opportunity cost of environmental resources and the cost incurred to protect them. Several methods are used for evaluation. Some of such widely used methods are: traveling cost method, contingency valuation method and breakeven pricing. See the boxes below for brief details about these methods.

Step 3: Decide on the optimum level of environmental protection and achieve it in the most efficient way. Once the most efficient level of environmental protection has been identified using theory and methods, the final step involves the identification of measures to achieve such desired level of protection. The design of an effective environmental policy paves the way for achieving such protection-related goals. It argued that the best way to achieve a desired level of environmental protection is by internalizing environmental externalities into the market in which they originate. Such internalization can be effected by taxing those involved in environmental damage or by subsidizing efforts to improve environmental quality, based on the equilibrium value derived from the analysis of the virtual market created through various valuation methods developed in the literature. Is. The alternative is to create “real” markets for environmental goods and services.

Box: 1 – Travel Cost Methodology

The travel cost method is used to estimate the economic use values associated with ecosystems or sites used for recreation. The basic premise of the travel cost method is that the time it takes people to visit a site and the travel cost incurred represents the “price” of access to the site. Thus, people’s willingness to pay to visit a site can be estimated based on the number of visits they make at various travel costs. It is similar to estimating people’s willingness to pay for a marketable commodity based on the quantity demanded at different prices.

a case study the situation

Hell Canyon on the Snake River separating Oregon and Idaho offers spectacular views and outdoor amenities to visitors from across the country and supports important fish and wildlife habitat. It also has economic potential as a site to develop hydroelectricity. To generate hydroelectricity, a dam would need to be built behind which a large lake would form. The dam and resulting lake would significantly and permanently alter the ecological and aesthetic characteristics of Hell Canyon.

the challenge

During the 1970s, there was great controversy over the future of Hell’s Canyon. Environmental economists at Resources for the Future in Washington, DC were asked to develop an economic analysis to preserve Hell’s Canyon in its natural state in the face of its obvious economic potential as a source of hydroelectricity.

analysis

The researchers estimated that the net economic value (cost savings) of hydroelectric generation at Hell’s Canyon was $80,000 more than a “next best” site that was not as environmentally sensitive. They then conducted a low-cost/less accurate travel-cost survey to estimate the recreational value of Hell’s Canyon and concluded that it was approximately $900,000. The researchers did not attempt to strongly defend the assessment methodology they used or the “scientific” credibility of the results. However, at the public hearing, he emphasized that even if the “true value” of recreation at Hell’s Canyon was ten times less than he had estimated, it would still exceed the $80,000 economic payback from generating electricity there, unlike at the other site. Will happen. , He also explained that the overall demand for outdoor recreation, for which supply is limited, was increasing, while there are many other sources of energy available besides Hell’s Canyon hydropower.

Result

Based largely on the results of this non-market evaluation study, Congress voted to halt further development of Hell’s Canyon.

The contingency assessment method involves directly asking people in surveys how much they would be willing to pay for specific environmental services. In some cases, people are asked for the amount of compensation they would be willing to accept for giving up specific environmental services. it is called

“Contingent” valuation, as people are asked to state their willingness to pay, contingent on a specific hypothetical scenario and description of the environmental service.

The contingency assessment method is referred to as a “perceived preference” method, because it asks people to state their values directly, rather than asking them to

Estimating values from real alternatives, as “revealed preference” methods do. The fact that CV is based on what people say they will do, not as people are seen to do, is the source of its greatest strength and one of its greatest weaknesses.

Contingent valuation is one of the only ways to assign dollar values to environmental non-use values – values that do not involve market purchases and cannot involve direct participation. these values

is sometimes called the “idle use” value. They range from basic life support functions related to ecosystem health or biodiversity, to enjoying a natural view or wilderness experience, to the right to appreciate or bequeath options to fish or bird watch in the future. Grandson. This also includes the value that people attach to simply knowing that giant pandas or whales exist.

Case Study – The Economic Value of a Non-Commercial Fish Position

The rivers in the Four Corners region provide 2,465 river miles of critical habitat for nine species of fish that are listed as threatened or endangered. Continued protection of these areas required habitat improvements, such as fish passageways, as well as bypass release of water from dams to mimic the natural water flow needed by the fish. A contingency assessment survey was used to estimate the economic value for the conservation of critical habitat.

application

Survey respondents were provided with detailed maps that highlighted areas designated as important habitat units for the fish. He was told that some state and federal officials thought that the combined cost of habitat improvements and the ban on hydropower was too costly and had proposed eliminating the critical housing unit designation. He was asked if he would contribute to the Four Corners Region Threatened and Endangered Fish Trust Fund.

Respondents were also told that the effort to raise money would involve contributions from all American taxpayers. If a majority of households voted in favor of the fund, the fish species would be saved from extinction. This would be accomplished through the release of water from federal dams over time for the benefit of the fish, and through the purchase of water rights to maintain stream flow. Furthermore, within the next 15 years, the populations of three species of fish will increase so much that they will no longer be listed as threatened species.

On the other hand, if the U.S. If a majority of households voted not to approve the fund, the critical habitats shown on the map would be eliminated. This would mean that water change activity and maximum power generation would reduce the amount of habitat for these nine fish species. Respondents were told that if this happened, biologists expected that four out of nine fish species would likely be extinct in 15 years.

Result

Questionnaires were mailed to a random sample of 800 households in the Four Corners states of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah (with proportions based on the states’ relative populations). Additional 800 families in the remainder of the U.S. The sample was taken from The average willingness to pay was estimated to be $195 per household. When extrapolated to the general population, the value of protecting habitat areas was determined to far exceed the cost.

agricultural ecology

India faced the crisis of food shortage in the decade following the need of green revolution along with other schemes to improve agriculture in India this module What is the symbol and meaning of green revolution , will proceed to decode it. It would also follow one of the overarching narratives of the entire course – namely the ecological cost of human experimentation. The module will conclude with a consideration of the environmental and social costs of the Green Revolution and briefly deal with the current debate around food security in post-Green Revolution India.

Thomas Malthus was one of the first scholars to propose a detailed theory on population growth. In his book ‘An Essay on the Principles of Population’ (1798), Malthus proposed that population increases exponentially i.e. at a geometric rate whereas food production increases only at an arithmetic rate which inevitably leads to increase in food supply to the growing population. Decreases from Hence Malthus’ conclusion predicts a catastrophic scenario in the future where humans will have no resources to survive. To avert or avert this catastrophe, Malthus suggests controls on population growth, classifying them as ‘preventive’ or ‘positive’ checks.

Malthus’ proposition became a harsh reality with the birth of independent India. Not only burdened with considerable economic, social and military upheaval, the newly independent nation also had a mammoth task of providing basic welfare measures for its population. This work also drew its importance from the fact that India faced a food disaster only 4 years before independence during the ‘Famine of Bengal’. It was estimated that around 3–4 million people died of starvation in the Bengal province of erstwhile British India (which included Bangladesh) alone. 2 While it is argued that this was a man-made disaster made possible by British colonial rule, it left its mark in terms of the potential danger of indifferent policy making and execution. This was a clear policy move that prompted the independent nation’s policy-makers to focus on the food supply and to do so in order to actually increase productivity in food production.

Green Revolution in India:

policy

In this context, this work initially began with a focus on land reforms in the immediate years after independence and extended through the 1950s. The culmination of the focus on agriculture, minor irrigation and decentralized approach in implementing the plans was seen in the First Five Year Plan (1951–56), which was considered a success by the government. However, the ideas of modernity and the emphasis on large-scale development led to an emphasis on industry rather than agriculture in the Second Five Year Plan (1956–61), leading to a disaster in food grain production.

However, the shortage of food grains in the country was understood in simple economic terms as “market deficit”, which translated into increased food grain production through sectors that were deemed capable of producing a ‘surplus’.3 In other words, better-off areas will produce more, which will be bought into the market to compensate for areas with less food production. Changes in agricultural practices such as better irrigation facilities, the use of advanced fertilizers and pesticides to increase crop yields, and making way for high-yielding varieties of crops (mainly rice and wheat) are key to addressing the food supply crisis. as seen. It was in this context that the Green Revolution took place in agriculture in India.

The Green Revolution period began roughly around 1967 and lasted for a decade. It was inspired by the development of a new variety of High Yielding Variety (HYV) seed developed by the American scientist Dr. Norman Borlaug. After research work in Mexico where he developed HYV seeds, Dr. Borlaug helped introduce these seeds to the Third World in the mid-20th century. Dr. MS Swaminathan, an Indian geneticist worked closely with Dr. Borlaug in developing these seeds to suit the conditions in India and this led to the era of Green Revolution. This period saw a spectacular increase in food grain production supported by the increase in irrigation facilities, the use of machinery, cheap credit, credit purchases.

Considered a highly advanced technological development, the Green Revolution was particularly appreciated in India

From a food shortage in 1978/79 to a food surplus situation and raising food grain production to a record 131 million tonnes. Promoted profusely under the Intensive Agricultural Development Program (IADP), the HYV seed program covers 5 crops – wheat, millet, paddy, maize and jowar, of which the wheat crop has a yield of about 5 tonnes per hectare as against the normal yield of about 2 tonnes. Record yield of tonnes was observed. .5

The above paragraphs present a one-sided story of the Green Revolution by presenting it as a spectacular success story, a story that is devoid of flaws and ramifications in the decades that followed. The Green Revolution brought significant changes in agricultural practices in India and initially achieved success in food production. However, these changes have also brought changes in the environment and society.

Before dealing with these changes, this module will try to understand the Green Revolution as a marker of modern practices during an era in which modernization was the dominant development paradigm of the world. Reflecting on this, the module will also bring to light the question of power and seek to understand whether the Green Revolution was just another discourse seeking to perpetuate the dominant power structures in the world.

Cost of Green Revolution and Modern Practices:

The emergence of the modern state saw the rise of various practices to make the population and environment ‘legible’. Accessibility, writes James Scott, is “a central problem in statecraft”. He approaches the problem of readability by drawing a comparison between the pre-modern state, which he calls “partially blind”, which knew little about its subjects, in contrast to the modern state, which was overly concerned with knowing everything. is concentrated.

The modern state apparatus therefore operates through “rationalizing and standardizing what was a social hieroglyph into a legible and administratively more convenient format”, making an administrative function of society possible. The lens through which the modern state viewed its population was similar to that of the environment. Nature thus came to be organized primarily on the basis of a utilitarian principle conducive to the maximization of economic profit. Scott writes “Plants that are valued become “crops”, species that compete with them are stigmatized as “pests”. Thus, trees that are valued become “timber”. while species competing with them become “trash” trees or “underbrush”.

The quotes describe Scott’s efforts in understanding scientific forestry, the same parallel can be drawn to understand the process of Green Revolution in India.

India woke up from the dreams of modernity; Nehru was its original model. Technological innovation and scientific temper as well as a high level of industrial development in a superstitious country were seen as key indicators of progress towards science and the adoption of a modern lifestyle. It was the allure of modernity that once prompted Nehru to declare factories, research laboratories, irrigation dams and power stations the “temples of modern India”. In the face of these transformational changes, agriculture was clearly a major indicator of the backwardness of Indian society. This backwardness in agricultural method

was also considered as a reason for low productivity. Hence the Green Revolution model appeared as a miracle, a harbinger of progress, scientific and technological advancement and most importantly its application in a relatively primitive enterprise – agriculture. The ease of identification of selected areas and crops to implement the program for a very useful utilitarian purpose – surplus in food grain production – played an important administrative tool here.

New practices or systems of knowledge often do not work with existing systems. More often than not, they change them, erasing knowledge systems. Scientific forestry, as described by James Scott, not only provides the state system with a means to understand forest ecosystems in a given region, but also makes it the only valid means of understanding forests.

Traditional systems of knowledge that focused on man’s intimate relationship with the surrounding flora and fauna were replaced by a legitimate and dominant state-expressed way of knowing that same environment. In the Third World, such traditional knowledge systems have disappeared.

MS happened through its interaction with the West, in other words as a result of colonialism. Vandana Shiva argues that the impact of colonialism in the Third World typically leads to the emergence of a “dominated and colonialist culture” that is promoted as universal. They arise from an unrelenting interplay between power and knowledge that seek to preserve established social hierarchies. To maintain structures of domination. 10 existing knowledge systems within a society are dismissed as being “unscientific” and “primitive” that must be changed

Benefit to the society. There were similar voices of condemnation of Indian agricultural practices and hence the Green Revolution was seen as a truly modern innovation.

The Green Revolution changed the “symbiotic relationship between soil, water, farm animals and plants” with a new variety of seeds, chemicals and machines. Traditional patterns of crop growing included rotational cropping patterns; However, the single most important effect of the Green Revolution was the introduction of ‘monoculture’. In other words, the multiple cropping pattern was replaced by the development of genetically modified monocropping pattern.

This limited the variety of crops grown in an area to only commercially viable cash crops. So the Green Revolution eliminated all the varieties of seeds and crops in the world in one stroke; Labeling some as ‘unscientific’ or ‘primitive’, they were replaced by the HYV variety, which certainly fetched better prices in the globally integrated capitalist market. This led to a significant loss of nutritious crops such as ragi and jowar, which were termed ‘inferior’, and also to the exclusion of the growth of ‘marginal crops’ (those grown alongside staple seeds such as wheat). Most of these were also a source of livelihood for the country’s farmers, who used reeds and grasses (which were declared harmful to the growth of the principal crop and were called ‘weeds’) to make baskets and mats. source of income.

Thus the Green Revolution was another knowledge system effectively institutionalized to perpetuate the dominance of the Western scientific model, shaped to strengthen and promote commercial viability for the needs of global capital.

The consequences of the Green Revolution are not only environmental but are actually interrelated. The immediate impact on soil and water has long term effects on the health of farmers/farmers and most importantly at the turn of the century has created deep rifts in Indian society.

Ecological Cost of Green Revolution:

Agriculture is nothing but a modification of natural processes to meet the needs of human beings by using the agricultural ecosystem of soil, water and ecological services provided by other members of biota. So whenever mankind has tried to modify agriculture it has basically modified the natural processes or completely replaced it i.e. in the case of Green Revolution. Hence the Green Revolution has resulted in degradation of soil systems, pollution of water and loss of biodiversity. This has resulted in destabilization of agro-ecosystems and many of those areas are no longer

More cultivable due to high toxicity and salinity of soil and water. The success of the Green Revolution came with significant ecological costs. In addition to displacing traditional systems of knowledge and even eliminating the means of livelihood support to farming families, changes in agricultural practices during this period saw changes in soil and air quality – in other words in the ecosystem itself. . The initial success and popularity of HYV seeds inspired the term “miracle seed” in reference to the same. However, they may be more appropriately described as ‘high response seeds’.

Unlike their conventional counterparts, these seeds responded faster to higher doses of spray fertilization and produced higher yields. The success of these seeds was so rapid that within a year of the Green Revolution (1967 to 68), the Mexican variety of wheat was being used in Ludhiana.

A tremendous increase was observed from 18,000 acres to 245,000 acres.13 These seeds were high-maintenance and required a constant supply of fertilizers, pesticides and water, apart from high amounts of credit, for its maintenance. While these HYV seeds did not prove to be very successful with non-wheat crops, crop production in wheat kept its shortcomings hidden.

On the other hand the ecological cost was not hidden and this has added to the agrarian crisis not only in India but across the world. JR McNeil noted that the increased use of insecticides led to the emergence of resistant insects, which actually absorbed these doses. Pesticides used were also often not precise and most effectively ended up in surrounding water systems or in human tis

Thus contaminating both. 14 Heavy fertilizer use has also led to eutrophication of lakes and rivers and altered the genetic diversity of agriculture. Specially in India where crops apart from food have multipurpose use as animal feed, organic manure for soil and also mentioned earlier to help provide subsidiary income to farmer family, facilitated by Green Revolution Agricultural changes brought about by nature changed the balance in the ecosystem itself. According to Vandana Shiva, “the destruction of diversity and the creation of homogeneity simultaneously involves the destruction of stability and the creation of vulnerability.”15

the most important; The monocultures caused by the Green Revolution are practically unsustainable. As mentioned earlier, they cannot co-exist with indigenous or traditional crop varieties, but can only survive by completely replacing them. in a narrow-minded, utilitarian view, commercially viable crops that fetch high prices in the market and may

Shown as trophies, no consideration is given to the harmful effects on the ecosystem. Inspired by an anthropocentric view of nature, the ecosystem appears primarily as ‘mutable’ or is considered to be easily molded according to human needs. While this approach to scientific change sometimes appears necessary and indeed normal, it should be borne in mind that this ‘normal’ actually represents the ‘abnormal’. These changes have resulted in loss of soil nutrients, water logging and land mining problems.

Water is an essential requirement for life which also plays an important role in agriculture. The Green Revolution was heavily dependent on water and was neither seen as a limiting factor nor recognized that contamination would have a boomerang effect. Chemical intensive farming not only required large amounts of water to dissolve fertilizers and pesticides, but also required large amounts of water to produce high-yielding varieties that were foreign to the local environment. This has resulted in over-exploitation of water resources due to excessive need on the one hand and pollution of fresh water resources due to mixing of fertilizers and pesticides on the other.

As a result of the increasing need of water due to the Green Revolution, lakhs of tube wells have been dug to tap the ground water. Over-exploitation of groundwater across the country has resulted in depleting groundwater levels across the country. This has resulted in deeper and deeper wells being built to bring water from the ground which has many environmental implications. Successive governments have also started intensive dam construction across the country to divert water to unirrigated areas. The construction of the dam has resulted in siltation of major river systems in India and has had a huge environmental impact.

Another related aspect resulting in pollution in the watershed is runoff from farms which contain high amounts of fertilizers and chemical pesticides. This runoff water mixes with nearby river streams and other freshwater bodies, resulting in eutrophication of surface water bodies. This has resulted in loss of biodiversity, changes in the composition of biodiversity, invasion of alien species and increase in the level of toxicity in water. This usually leads to algal blooms that deplete the oxygen in the water and sometimes result in blooms of toxic algal species that destroy animals, plant species, and other biota in the water. Another aspect of the water system is contamination of groundwater systems due to the injection of fertilizers and pesticides into the soil that remain in the soil for many years. Fertilizers like urea, phosphate and nitrate remain inside the soil which seeps through the soil into the groundwater over the years.

As a result of which the ground water system gets contaminated. The problems are compounded by the fact that the water is being continuously exploited which increases the concentration of chemicals inside the groundwater. Water resources are being destroyed quantitatively and qualitatively by the use of fertilizers.

The soil system forms the basis and is the most important component of agriculture in which a plant is born, takes nutrients from it to produce food and releases them back into the soil so that it can support crops. The Green Revolution altered the soil by adding artificial chemical nutrients such as urea, phosphorus and potassium to ensure the survival of high-yielding varieties. urea which is a way of fixing nitrogen, breaks down into nitrates which

Is water soluble and remains in the soil and water system for long periods of time. It contaminates the soil and results in loss of soil productivity in the long run. Fertilizer use may increase

TREATS and phosphates in the soil but have had the opposite effect on soil micronutrients which are essential not only to ensure yields but also to ensure the availability of nutrients in crops. The fact is that the Green Revolution largely focused on wheat and rice, which do not have the natural ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, unlike other crops such as pulses and chickpeas.

The most damaging consequences of the environmental effects of the Green Revolution are occurring at the turn of the century. Punjab and Haryana are two states at the forefront of these harmful consequences, which were promoted as success stories during the Green Revolution period. These states today are facing significant agrarian distress with poor soil quality, water scarcity and a good section of farmers looking for opportunities away from agriculture. Decreased yields from agricultural farms subjected to higher and higher doses of fertilizer and chemical use in a desperate bid to increase productivity but to no avail. Wheat-paddy monocultures have eliminated varieties of other crops, most notably cotton in the Sirsa and Fatehabad regions of Haryana.

Higher-growing species began to dominate the fields, and this resulted in the extinction of low-growing species that were an important part of the web. area and resulted in the loss of essential ecosystem services. This has created its own need for herbicides to control the unwanted growth of high yielding plants. Different types of crops in a field play an important role in controlling different pests and preventing the damage caused by them but due to lack of varieties of crops, the traditional system of pest management also ended. This has increased the demand for chemical pesticides

Which has further killed many helpful bacteria that were helpful in many ecological processes.

Social Cost of Green Revolution:

The Green Revolution was expected to solve the agrarian crisis in India. However, the most profound effect of the Green Revolution has been the increase in social inequalities and inequality, which has led to an increase in the agricultural population in India. Benefiting only the upper class and upper caste sections of the rural population, this agrarian change proved most unfavorable to small-scale farmers and landless labourers.

It should be remembered here that the pattern of land distribution in India has a strong historical precedent in the land tenure systems of Zamindari, Mahalwari and Ryotwari. The Green Revolution generally favored areas where “pre-existing property relations were conducive to capitalist (and peasant) cultivation”. Thus, it generally meant the Mahalwari system (North-West of India – Punjab and Haryana). The land reforms undertaken after independence saw mixed success; Indian democracy was built on shaky foundations and the political system was dominated by the landowning peasants (middle and upper landowning peasants) in rural India. was held together by the support given. In exchange for political support, the state repaid this group by providing subsidies in farming equipment, irrigation, and other agricultural infrastructure. These schemes, culminating with the Green Revolution program, helped those areas which were already very well closed, with many marginal areas in dire need of state support in the process. Apart from the fact that it created regional disparities at the very stage of its implementation, only a few Regions were selected over other regions; this The fruits of the slaughter also fell very unevenly.

J.R. McNeil wrote that, “As a rule, though not without exceptions, the Green Revolution increased inequality among farmers.”18 In almost all areas where it was implemented, the Green Revolution increased credit to farmers. and supported better access to water. In the Indian case, this meant the middle and upper landholding farmers in the country, who incidentally also belonged to the upper castes. Thus the Green Revolution furthered the caste and class divide in rural India in favor of this select group of farmers.

The introduction of HYV seeds in the market along with a range of fertilizers and pesticides gave rise to virtual market monopoly. These products were expensive and therefore out of reach of small farmers. To purchase these products with the expectation

With increased productivity, rural Indians saw an expanding credit market. Small farmers generally obtained loans by staking their property. Crop failure inevitably leaves this vulnerable section of the population poorer due to loss of land and property. These consequences have led to cases of social unrest and complete breakdown of community relations.

Vandana Shiv Focus

especially on the violence caused by the Green Revolution in Punjab. Disillusionment with agricultural policies and centralized control of commodity prices led to a rift between the farming community and the state, leading to an intense conflict. As Shiva puts it, the policies of the Green Revolution “created a moral vacuum where nothing is sacred and everything has

There is a cost” also leading to political conflicts over the capture of state power and tensions centered on centre-state relations.

The most discussed issue at the turn of the century, especially related to the agrarian crisis, was certainly the issue of farmers’ suicides. The states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab report particularly high rates of farmer suicides. In a case study of 5 states, AR Vasavi (2009) found that most of the victims of farmer suicides were farmers who were trying to transition to Green Revolution agriculture by modernizing agricultural practices. This included purchase of HYV seeds, fertilizers, change in irrigation techniques, etc., for which loans were obtained. He further said that most of these victims are small farmers and belong to lower caste groups, who resorted to these techniques to get out of poverty. Crop failure inevitably led to failure to repay loans and eventually these huge loans accumulated. ended in suicides.

organic agriculture

There is a need to expand facilities for farmers as they need access to domestic as well as export markets. Due to ignorance of agricultural policy, there is less support from the government to promote organic farming. Subsidies, official research and even extension services are also available. India has made progress and organic farming will make tremendous progress if continuous support is provided by the government.

The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) defines organic agriculture as:

“Organic agriculture is a production system that maintains the health of soil, ecosystem and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture Combines tradition, invention and science for the shared benefit of the environment and promotes fair relations and a good quality of life for all involved.

There is increasing interest in organic farming as the cost of using natural resources is lower. The process utilizes the traditional and indigenous technical knowledge of the farmers. Organic farming challenges farmers to adopt new approaches and innovations. Though there is low productivity during the initial years but eventually the quality of soil is improved with less cost of production.

Another general definition of organic agriculture given by FAO (1999) is- “Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system that promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It Emphasizes the use of management practices rather than the use of non-agricultural inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems.

This is accomplished using agronomic, biological and mechanical methods wherever possible, as opposed to using synthetic materials to accomplish a specific function within the system.

The Unites States Department of Agriculture defines organic agriculture as “a system that avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives, etc.) and to the maximum extent possible.” possible depending on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manure, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological systems or nutrient mobilization and plant protection”.

The United Nations Food and Agriculture definition suggests that “organic agriculture is a unique production management system that promotes and enhances the health of agro-ecosystems, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and is defined as agricultural are accomplished using scientific, biological and agronomical methods to the exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs”.

Organic agriculture uses locally available resources in combination with adapted techniques such as pest control management. Organic farming approach can be sustainable agriculture as it has many benefits like stability of yield, increase in income of farmers using traditional farming systems, once the system is stabilized, soil fertility is maintained and dependence on chemicals decreases. As organic products obtain certification, farmers gain market access with attractive prices for their produce.

According to the latest FiBL-IFOAM survey on certified organic agriculture worldwide there is about 43.7 ha in 170 countries which comprises 1% of the total agricultural land of the countries under study. The three countries with the most land under organic agriculture are Australia (17.2 million hectares), Argentina (3.1 million hectares) and the United States (2.2 million hectares). Apart from agricultural land, there are other areas for wild collection, aquaculture, forests and grazing areas on non-agricultural land. Agricultural land covers over 37.6 million hectares, of which 81.2 million hectares—agricultural and non-agricultural—are organic. forty percent are in asia

world’s largest organic producers, followed by Africa (26 percent) and Latin America (17 percent). The countries with the largest number of producers are India (650,000), Uganda (189,610) and Mexico (169,703).

There have been suggestions that farmers were engaged in farming without external chemical inputs such as artificial fertilizers and pesticides for many centuries and hence can be called practitioners of organic farming. However, the intent conveyed by the term organic farming cannot be taken in its entirety, if such an option is to be made by default. Therefore, the term organic farming arose when, even in the face of the increasing chemicalization of agriculture and the emergence of several sub-disciplines within agricultural science, a perspective emerged that viewed the farm as a ‘living organism’.

The earliest impressions of such a perspective can be seen in Rudolf Steiner’s proposal for biodynamic agriculture (1920s). The idea of biodynamic agriculture emerged in the work of Steiner who conceptualized it as a part of his larger proposition of anthropocentrism and earth spirituality. Talking about the biodynamic system, Lotter (2003: 03) states, “It uses specific compost preparation recipes, has a strong spiritual component in its agricultural practices” and has been described by some commentators as “organic plus spiritual”. understood as “.

Around the same time that Steiner was beginning his challenge to the dominant way of doing agriculture with greater reliance on synthetic nitrogen in the last ten years of his life (1915–1925), Albert Howard was trying to revive humus. Was doing. Principle of soil health and its relevance to plant growth.

are you

Dolph Steiner, author of Lectures on Agriculture (1925), challenged dominant methods of farming during the last ten years of his life (1915–1925) by presenting the first serious challenge to the spread of chemical agriculture. In 1924, a group of farmers approached him to give them

What Steiner called “healing the earth”. Steiner responded to this request by putting together a series of eight lectures on an ecological and sustainable approach to agriculture, which turned out to be arguably the world’s first organic agriculture course (7 to 16 June 1924). A recently published paper (Paul: 2011) which looks at the original attendance records indicates that there were 111 participants (81 men and 30 women), who came from six countries. The immediate result of the course was The Agricultural Research Circle and the idea of bio-dynamic agriculture was given some amount of visibility and inspiration by Dr.

Found in Ehrenfried Pfeiffer writing, Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening 1938. These lectures were published in November 1924 from the transcripts of the participants. in German and in 1928, the first English translation appeared as The Agricultural Course.

James Northbourne studied agricultural science at the University of Oxford and later applied Rudolf Steiner’s principles to the family estate in Kent. In 1939, he met another noted exponent of biodynamic agriculture, Dr. visited Switzerland to meet Ehrenfried Pfeiffer. As a result of his visit, Northbourne hosted his farm, the Betshenger Summer School and the conference2. Northbourne is credited with coining the term

In his book, Look at the Land (written in 1939, published in 1940), ‘organic farming’ is a response to

Northbourne’s important contribution is the idea of the farm as organism. He wrote of “the farm as a living whole” (p. 81). In the first elaboration of this concept, he wrote that “the farm itself must have an organic It must be a living unit, it must be a unit within which there is a balanced organic life” (p. 96). A farm that “imported fertility … can be neither self-sufficient nor an organic whole”. (p. 97). For Lord Northbourne, “the farm should be organic makes more sense

more than one” (p. 98), and he presents the holistic view that “the soil and the micro-organisms together with the plants growing on it constitute a biological whole” (p. 99)… The first phenomenon or biological Cultivation appears as a separate phrase where he warns: “In the long run, the consequences of

Attempts to replace chemical farming with organic farming will probably prove to be more harmful than is not yet clear. And it’s probably worth noting that the synthetic fertilizer industry is huge and well organized. Its propagation is subtle, and the artificial will die hard ”(p. 103).

Albert Howard, author of An Agricultural Testament (1940), is often referred to as the pioneer of modern organic agriculture, as he worked with Gabrielle Howard for years as imperial botanist in Pusa, Bengal, between 1905 and 1924. while documenting with keen interest and traditional farming practices of neighboring farmers. In 1924, the two moved to Indore to establish the Institute of Plant Industries, continuing their efforts to revive the humus theory of soil health and experimenting with different methods of manure and compost. From 1924 onwards, Albert Howard also served as an agricultural advisor to the states in Central India and Rajputana.

Howard’s writings in the 1920s show that he began to express his displeasure at divisive agricultural research and advocated a holistic approach. In Indore, he developed an aerobic composting method known as the ‘Indore Process’.

Su worked and talked about it in detail in two lectures delivered before the Royal Society of Arts.

In 1931, along with his colleague, Yashwant D. Wad, he published a remarkable book called The Waste Products of Agriculture: Their Utilization as Humus. In the introduction, he mentions how various experiments in Indore of using waste products from the farm to increase soil fertility are being replicated in various centers in Sindh and central India and Rajputana.

This book explains in detail how the Indore method of composting can use all human, animal and vegetable wastes to restore humus in the soil. It also turns out that Howard and his colleagues at the Institute of Plant Industries ran short-term certificate courses on compost making and cattle-shed management.

Howard wrote in his classic book An Agricultural Testament that “the capital of nations that is real, permanent and independent of everything except that there is a market for the products.

Cultivation is the soil” (1943: 219). In the preface to this excellent book which had five reprints between 1940 and 1945, Howard informs his readers that “during the last nine years (i.e. 1931 to 1940), the Indore Process has been taken up at many centers in the world” and ” Much information has been obtained on the role of humus in agriculture”. To drive his point of view with a force, Howard used the allegory of war in his later book, War on the Soil.

Albert Howard, in a tribute to his colleague at Indore, Yashwant D. Wad – who had joined the Institute of Plant Industries at Indore in 1928, calls Howard’s experiments in developing the Indore method

Composting,” an early stage in the establishment of an entirely new school of agricultural thought, which in the near future promises to offer humanity a creed destined to halt its present race toward destruction and the destruction of civilization. enables it to stop and think and direct its course to safety, security and steady prosperity”. maintenance, the production of food capable of providing real vitality and enduring power of survival to human beings”.

Robert McCarrison meanwhile was engaged in research on the relationship between soil fertility, food quality and human nutrition at the Nutrition Research Laboratories in Coonoor in South India. He also investigated the reduction in the quality of food due to the presence of excessive mineral nitrogen fertilizers.

In 1939, Eve Balfour, author of The Living Soil (1943), began The Hogley Experiment, the first long-term, field-based and scientific comparison of organic and chemical-based farming. She was inspired by the writings of Albert Howard and Mack Carrison and formed The Soil Association, an organization in the 1940s to emphasize the importance of soil health, and from 1943 began publishing her magazine, The Mother Earth.

Organic farming practices in the United States found a sympathetic voice in the writings of William Albrecht, a soil chemist at the University of Missouri. The many experiments of innovative farmers and their practical ideas on organic farming are shared by publisher-entrepreneur, J.I. Rodale, who started the magazine Organic Farming and Gardening and named Albert Howard as its consulting editor.

Mark Lipson (1997) calls organic agriculture itself ambiguous in nature and open to a wide range of interpretations. The “organic” in organic farming suggests that the products are produced according to certain standards and ultimately certified by an authority. Some certification agencies have strict compliance requirements when it comes to using the term “organic” in relation to agricultural produce.

Announcement of the first set of organic production standards (1960)

In 1971, Earl Butz, the secretary of the USDA at the time, made a statement, ‘Before going back to organic agriculture in this country, someone has to decide whether we are going to starve or let 50 million Americans go hungry’. However, within ten years the USDA demonstrated a positive bias when it published a “comprehensive survey of organic farming to better understand its potential and its limitations and

Recommend how the USDA should be involved”.

global market

According to Organic Monitor, global sales of organic food and drink reached US$80 billion in 2014. The global market has expanded more than fivefold, growing at a healthy rate over the past decade and monitors predict it will continue to grow in the years to come. Twenty-seven percent of the world’s organic land is in Europe while Latin America accounts for 15 percent. The largest single market was the United States (about 43 percent

global market) followed by the European Union (23.9 billion euros, 38 percent) and China (3.7 billion euros, 6 percent). China and India mainly grow oilseeds (mainly soybeans) on at least 443,000 hectares each.

Table 1: World: shares of organic agricultural land (including conversion areas) and area of global organic agricultural land 2014

philosophy of organic farming

George Kuyper (2010) discusses the philosophy of organic farming.

There was a desire to reverse the issues of agriculture such as degradation of soil quality, soil erosion, monsoon

oculture and hence the low quality of food and poverty. Humus farming emerged, which used traditional agricultural practices to conserve the soil. This traditional farming involved composting, use of animal manure, proper management of pH by adding lime and natural rock dust. The soil food web is considered a living component of the soil as opposed to the use of fertilizers which disturbs the entire web. Use of artificial fertilizers and pesticides is against the principle of humus cultivation.

This type of traditional farming regenerates the soil by avoiding exploitation of natural resources hence ensuring sustainable management of soil as well as food.

The term humus farming changed to “organic” in the 1940s, the term organic was first used by Northbourne in the book “Look to the Land”, published in 1940 to describe this type of agriculture Was. Northbourne used the term organic to describe processes that are biological in nature.

Since the 1960s, there has been increasing concern about the potential effects of bioaccumulation. A 2002 study found that organic foods contained a third as much residue as produce grown using integrated pest management. Albert Howard mentions that “health is the birthright of all living things and health in humans depends on a chain of health that begins in the soil” and further states that pests and diseases evidence unhealthy soil.

Predestination is a doctrine given by a different school of thought that dates back to the work of

Hm Ward in the 1890s and continued until the mid-1970s. Pl Phelan’s research on maize borer found that if organic farming is done, the damage caused by insects is reduced. The major focus of fungal diseases was

Prejudice theory at first but later he expanded to address this issue of other diseases. When it comes to the mechanism of predisposition, there are several theories associated with it. One says that plants produce phytochemicals to protect themselves from pests and diseases. However, if plants are stressed they produce fewer phytochemicals which makes them more vulnerable to pests and diseases. Another theory mentions about the breakdown of proteins under stress which leads to the accumulation of soluble amino acids in plant sap which insects can easily digest and hence they attack the stressed plants.

Another theory that links susceptibility and resistance states that high levels of sugars, minerals and other components are an indicator of plant health. This is the most popular theory but the predation theory is not relevant for new crop species or if a new pest has arrived.

organic farming in india

Agriculture in India plays an important role and forms the backbone of the economy. The biggest challenge before India after independence was to produce enough food to keep up with the growing population. The Green Revolution in India helped the country develop a food surplus by infusing high-yielding technology. The Green Revolution in 1960 was one of the most important programs of the government. Hybrid seeds were introduced and large tracts of land were brought under cultivation. With the introduction of chemical fertilizers, traditional knowledge was replaced by scientific knowledge. Imports decreased due to the Green Revolution and India had a substantial surplus until the 1990s.

The darker side of the revolution resulted in environmental pollution, poisoning due to pesticides, eutrophication of surface and groundwater, dependence on chemicals, and declining soil health. Conventional agriculture offers no certification and encourages the use of fertilizers and chemical pesticides. The revolution destroyed the traditional knowledge and methods of organic farming. Fertilizers remain in the environment for a very long time with harmful effects, although it shows short term effects in productivity. Hybrid seeds and monocultures pose a threat to the germplasm of indigenous species as they may be lost in the pursuit of increased productivity. The dire effects of conventional farming are farmer suicides, water contaminated with pesticides and aerated drinks are some examples. Organic farming deals with all the major problems facing agriculture these days.

The organic movement in India started with Howard’s ideas which were accepted by the people active in the movement. K.A. Gopinath, in his paper on organic farming, mentions that the scientific approach to organic farming dates back to the “Later Vedic period”, 1000 BCE to 600 BCE, and that the basic idea of organic agriculture was to live with nature rather than exploit it. Have to stay together The farmers of the Vedic period had immense knowledge of the fertility of the soil, the type of seed to be selected and the stability of plants to different seasons. Even in Quran “Atal” is mentioned

Because a third of what you take out of the soil should be returned. Some other names given to organic farming are humus farming, natural farming, bio-dynamic farming, holistic farming, sustainable farming, alternative farming etc. What is considered wasteful and unproductive in conventional farming can be converted into organic farming.

s considered productive.

India’s National Program for Organic Production (NPOP) is defined as “a system of agricultural design and management to create an ecosystem that achieves sustainable productivity without the use of artificial external inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides.” Can do”. “Organic farming is a system

Farming based on the integral relationship of processes, input farming and animal and human community in harmony with nature”.

Organic farming is not only a method of agriculture but a philosophy in itself which has three pillars of sustainability- environmental, social and economic at the core of farming. Maintaining soil fertility is a major concern as land is extensively plowed under intensive cropping, reducing its nutritive value. Such extensive tillage with indiscriminate use of chemicals has created major problems. Rainfed agriculture suffers from low productivity due to abnormal behavior of the monsoon; Apart from this, other problems are poor farmers, low investment, poor soil and lack of nutrients.

The historical perspective given by Bhattacharya (2005) in his article on the current status of organic farming in India and other countries is:

Historical Perspective of Organic Farming

ancient time

The oldest practice dates back to the Neolithic period, 10,000 years old,

Practiced by ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia, Hwang Ho Basin etc.

Ramayana (All dead things – rotting corpses or stinking garbage are returned to the earth, which is transformed into healthy things that nurture life. Such is the alchemy of Mother Earth – as C.

Rajagopalachari)

Mahabharata (5500 BCE) Kamdhenu, the celestial cow and its mention

Role on human life and soil fertility

Kautilya Arthashastra (300 BC) mentions several manures like cake, sewage

of animals

The Brihad-samhita (by Varahamihira) explained how to choose manure for various

Crop and Fertilize Methods

Rigveda (2500–1500 BCE) Rigveda 1, 16, 10, 2500–1500 BCE Mention of organic manure Green manure in Athara Veda II 8.3 (1000 BCE). Venus is in (IV, V, 94, 107-112)

Said that for healthy growth the plant should be nourished with goat, sheep, cow, water as well as meat dung. Surpal has also mentioned manure in Vrikshayurveda.

(Manuscript, Oxford, No. 324b, Six, 107-164

The Holy Qur’an (590 AD) At least one-third of what you extract from the soil should be recycled or returned after-

crop residue

sources of plant nutrients

Organic farming not only maximizes nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere but also encourages optimum use of local resources. Applications of biological sources not only encourage the development of

And along with the activity of mycorrhizae as well as other beneficial organisms in the soil, it also replenishes the micronutrient deficiencies. It also helps in maintaining soil health, hence maintaining higher crop productivity. Combined use of chemicals and organic sources improves soil fertility, crop productivity in a better way. Even today cow dung, cake and neem leaves are used in many parts of rural India.

Yadav S. et al (2013) have mentioned about the technology of farm yard manure (FYM) which can help in meeting the nutrient requirement of Indian agriculture at present. The concentration of nutrients in FYM is generally low and varies greatly depending on storage conditions and source. Harvested crop straw is commonly used for animal feed or bedding because straw traps urine when used for bedding and in turn enhances N cycling. Wet straw and manure are composted and applied immediately or until the next crop season. Nutrient management strategies that are appropriate are reduced use of tillage, improved water and efficient use of nutrients. Providing organic nutrition to the soil reduces carbon emissions, increases soil biodiversity and increases crop yield.

The crop productivity of organic farming is comparable to that of conventional farming, although during the initial year the crop productivity is less than that of conventional farming but increases in the later years. Research shows that the efficient use of organic fertilizers gradually increases grain yield and that vegetables respond well to organic sources of nutrients. Mixing vermicompost with fertilizers enhances the accumulation of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Incorporation of vermicompost increases soil water retention and hence enhances root growth; It also increases the organic nitrogen level of the soil. it is

It has also been reported that organic matter once decomposed releases macro and micro nutrients in the soil which are easily available to the plants. The report also suggests that there is an increase in the level of carbon, soluble phosphorus, potassium and pH level after about 4 years, it also acts as a reserve pool of stored nutrients. Organic farming also increases soil organic matter and improves physicochemical properties. However, adding carbonaceous material such as straw, wood, bark, sawdust helps in increasing the C:N ratio.

Gopinath K explains that there is a transition period which

b) A farmer moves from conventional farming to organic farming – This is the transition period to neutralize chemical residues in the soil and the period between organic farming and certification of crops. Plant products can be called organic if they meet the requirements during a conversion period of at least two years before the sowing of annual crops.

principles of organic farming

The principle objectives of organic agriculture as per the Indian Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOM), Germany are highlighted by Chandrasekhar H (2010) in his paper on the changing landscape of organic farming in India: An overview are-:

To maintain soil fertility and produce high quality food.
Working optimally within a closed system of living systems and natural cycles through soil, plants and animals throughout the production system.
To avoid any form of pollution by using locally adapted methods of farming as opposed to external use of chemicals

To produce sufficient quantities of food of high nutritional quality while maintaining the nutritional value and sustainability of the system.
To make the life of the producers to earn a decent living and to develop their traditional knowledge potential and at the same time protect it.

The pillars of organic farming are organic standards, certification and regulation, technology package and market network. The states involved in organic farming are Gujarat, Kerala, Karnataka, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh.

growth of india

Soon after the demand for organic agriculture increased in the western world, the demand for organically grown foods increased in India. To increase the export potential of organic food, the National Program on Organic Production was launched by the Ministry of Commerce. It sets out the process of accreditation and certification in 2000, along with defining the National Standards for Organic Production (NSOP). (of Gopinath). The salient features of NSOP are-:

It is not necessary to convert the entire farm or holding. However, the certification program will ensure that the organic and conventional parts of the farm are separate, clearly distinguishable and verifiable.
Plant products produced can only be certified “organic” when they meet the requirements of national standards during a conversion period of at least two years, or in the case of perennial crops, at least three years before the first harvest of the products. have been done
When certified organic seed and planting material is not available, chemically untreated conventional material shall be used.
Adequate diversity has to be maintained in crop production.
Bio-degradable materials of microbial, plant or animal origin will form the basis of the fertilization programme.
The certification program shall impose restrictions on the use of inputs with relatively high heavy metal content and, or unwanted substances, such as the mineral potassium, magnesium fertilizers, trace elements and fertilizers. Basic slag, rock phosphate and sewage sludge.
Manure containing human excreta shall not be used on vegetation intended for human consumption.
Products used for pest, disease and weed management prepared in the field from local plants, animals and micro-organisms are permitted.
Physical methods are allowed for thermal weed control and pest, disease and weed management.
Use of synthetic growth regulators and genetically engineered organisms or products is prohibited.
Animal products may be sold as “products of organic agriculture” only if the farm or its relevant part has been under conversion for at least 12 months. In respect of dairy and egg production, this period shall not be less than 30 days.
At least 80 percent of animal feed should be organically grown. Products from the organic food processing industry will also be used.
Use of traditional veterinary medicines is permitted when no other justifiable alternative is available.

certification

To provide recognized certification, India now has 30 agencies to provide certification to growers. For proper dissemination of technology, the Ministry of Agriculture launched a National Project for Promotion of Organic Farming (NPOF-DAC).

Funds are also provided for setting up and certification of organic and organic input production units under various schemes of the government such as RKVY (National Krishi Vikas Yojana), NMSA (National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture) and NHM (National Horticulture Mission).

In the organic business sector, India has shown good growth, with the domestic market growing at a rapid rate of about 40 percent and exports growing between 25 and 30 percent. The year 2015-16 saw two major initiatives – the allocation of Rs 1 billion for the development of organic markets in the North Eastern region of India and the government’s Participatory Guarantee Scheme (PGS). (Jagran K. et al., 2015)

The definition of PGS given by The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements or IFOAM (2008) is “Participatory Guarantee Systems are locally focused quality assurance systems. They certify producers based on the active participation of stakeholders and build trust, social networks and are built on a foundation of knowledge sharing. PGS is locally relevant ensuring participation of all stakeholders and there is no third party certification. Participatory approach in the process, transparent

Knowledge and belief are involved.

Causes of environmental destruction

Solving environmental problems
Rise of environmental consciousness and movements

Environmental issues such as global warming, depletion of ozone layer, export of waste to third world countries, deforestation for cattle grazing, loss of biodiversity, premature extinction of human species are discussed, debated and heated. Is. Contested each day in newspapers, magazines, radio and television news reports, and various Internet sources. These problems are due to the way humans interact with and perceive their environment. These problems force mankind to ignore, abuse, and manipulate their environment with little or no regard for the consequences. Obviously, this has many bad effects on the inhabitants of the earth including mankind. Humans harm their own natural environment and the reason for doing so is a perceived understanding by mankind that they are somehow superior to nature. This behavior seems to stem from the fact that man forgets that he himself is a part of nature. The concepts of dominion over nature and victory over nature are daily reminders of this observation. Human populations depend on the bio-physical environment for survival, and this in turn necessitates a closer look at the functions that the environment serves for humans.

environmental work

The biophysical environment serves many essential functions for human populations, as it does for all other species (Daily 1997), but three basic types can be identified.

First, the environment provides us with the resources that are necessary for life, from air and water to food to shelter, materials needed for transportation, and the vast range of economic goods we produce. Thus human ecologists view the environment as

Providing a ‘subsistence base’ for human societies, and we can also think of it as a ‘supply depot’. Some resources, such as forests, are potentially renewable while others, such as fossil fuels, are nonrenewable or finite. When we use resources faster than the environment can supply them, even if they are potentially renewable (such as clean water), we create resource depletion or scarcity (Catton, 1980).

second, in the process of consuming resources, humans, like all species, produce ‘waste’ products; In fact, humans produce far greater quantities and different types of waste products than other species. The environment must act as a “sink” or “waste reservoir” for these wastes, either absorbing or recycling them into useful or at least harmless substances (as when trees fix carbon dioxide). absorb and return oxygen to the air).

When the land was sparsely populated and resource use was minimal, this was rarely a problem. Modern and/or densely populated societies generate more waste than the environment can process, and the result is various forms of pollution that are prevalent around the world.

The third function of the environment is to provide “living space” or habitat for the human population. Human beings, like other species, must have a place to live, and the environment provides us with our home where we live, work, play, travel and spend our lives. When too many people try to live in a given space, it results in overcrowding, a common phenomenon in many urban areas (especially in poor countries). Some analysts suggest that the entire planet is now more populated by humans, although attempts to determine how many people Earth can support have proved difficult and controversial (Cohen, 1995).

When humans overuse the environment’s capacity to perform these three functions, environmental problems result in the form of pollution, depletion of resources, and overcrowding and/or overpopulation. However, not only must the environment fulfill all three functions for humans, but when a given environment is used for one function, the ability to fulfill the other two is often impaired. Such situations of functional competition often give rise to new, more complex environmental problems.

Competition between environmental functions is particularly evident in the conflict between living space and waste-storage functions, as the use of an area for a waste site usually renders it unsuitable for living space. when a field is u

place the waste in a landfill or as hazardous

Waste sites, for example, people don’t even want to live near (Freidenberg, 1997). Similarly, if hazardous material leaches from a waste repository and contaminates the soil, water or air, that area may no longer serve as a supply depot for drinking water or growing agricultural products. Finally, converting agricultural land or forests into housing subdivisions creates more living space for people, but also means that the land is no longer used as a supply depot for food or timber (or as habitat for wildlife). Can’t function as is.

solving environmental problems

automatically, it seems that we

Humans are at a disadvantage by creating social structures and neglecting the larger omnipresent societies of the animal and plant regions. If humans are to be thought of as an integral part of nature, and therefore inherently natural, then many of the problems associated with environmental abuse should have a positive effect. Classical sociology was primarily concerned with humans as a part of systems. These systems were mainly confined to the social and economic spheres of human society. Environmental sociology has gone through several phases. Originally a response to public attention to environmental problems, for many years the field of environmental sociology was essentially a repackaging of much of the already existing literature. However, within a decade, environmental sociology became integrated to a significant degree around

Contributions from Dunlap and Catton, Schneeberg, and a handful of others.

Environmental sociology approaches have not been able to adequately account for how environmental problems are defined, articulated and implemented by social actors. For example, why did environmentalism remain relatively on the backburner for half a century, from the 1920s to the 1970s? Why have global environmental problems such as ozone depletion, global warming and biodiversity loss displaced local problems such as groundwater pollution and urban sewage disposal as the main priority of the government, the media and more?

environmental movement? The antisocial constructionist perspective on the environment has several advantages over other theoretical approaches.

Unlike most existing sociological literature on the environment, social constructionism does not uncritically accept the existence of an environmental crisis brought on by uncontrolled population growth, over-production, dangerous new technologies, etc. Instead, it focuses on the social, political and cultural processes by which environmental conditions are defined as unacceptably risky and therefore actionable. As noted by Thompson (1991), environmental debates reflect not only the existence of a lack of certainty (eg about energy futures, the extent of the hazardous waste problem, the health affects of low-level radiation) but Existence of conflicting certainties: having profoundly different and mutually irrelevant beliefs about both the environmental problems we face and the solutions available to us.

However, it is important to note that environmental risks and socially constructed problems need not reduce valid claims about the state of the environment to the point of depriving them of an objective reality. As Annual (1992: 186) has observed, demonstrating that a problem is socially constructed is not to undermine or dismiss it, as both valid and invalid social problem claims have to be constructed. Similarly, social constructivism, as conceptualized here, does not deny independent emergent forces of nature, but rather claims that the ordering of these problems by social actors does not always correspond to actual necessity. To a large extent, this reflects the political nature of agenda-setting. As Bird (1987) has argued, understanding environmental problems socially and politically gives them ‘enormous normative weight’. Second, much of environmental problems are created in fields that are populated by communities of experts: scientists, engineers, lawyers,

medical doctors, government officials, corporate managers, political activists, etc., instead of being seen in full view of the general public. As a result research representations that focus exclusively on public discourse fail to fully capture the details of environmental agenda-setting and policy-making. The antisocial constructionist approach, in contrast, recognizes the extent to which environmental problems and solutions are end-products of any dynamic social process of definition, negotiation, and legitimation in both public and private settings.

A notable sociological study was Dirksen and Gartrell’s (1993) investigation of recycling in Edmonton, Alberta, which found that individuals’ level of environmental concern (and, by implication, knowledge about the importance of recycling) predicted recycling behavior. was not as important as having ready access to the curbside recycling program. While sociologists have conducted many field experiments and evaluations of community environmental programmes, they have generally omitted national level examinations, usually examining the efficacy of one or more of the above mentioned ‘reforms’.

and International Environmental Policy Making for Political Scientists and Economists. However, sociologists have begun to focus on efforts to negotiate international agreements to reduce greenhouse gases (Radclift and Sage, 1998), and we look forward to more sociological work in this direction.

As was true for the causes of environmental problems, early work by environmental sociologists interested in solutions to these problems often involved the search for and use of dominant approaches.

Criticism included. Early on Haberlein (1974) described a “technical solution” or developing and

Applying new technologies to solve problems like air and water pollution. Clearly popular in a nation with a history of technological progress, such a solution is attractive because it avoids mandating behavioral and institutional change. Unfortunately, solving problems with new technologies sometimes creates even more problems, as evidenced by attempts to solve the energy shortage with nuclear power. As a result, as the seriousness and prevalence of environmental problems became more apparent, various types of “social reforms” or efforts to change individual and institutional behavior were considered.

Expanding on Haberlein’s analysis, other sociologists (eg, Dunlap et al. 1994) have identified three broad types of social reform, or implicit policy types:

(1) The cognitive (or knowledge) fix, which assumes that information and persuasion will be sufficient to produce the necessary change in behavior

or, illustrated by campaigns encouraging energy conservation and recycling;

(2) structural reform, which relies on laws and regulations that mandate behavior change, reflected in highway speed limits or enforced water conservation; And

(3) mediated behavior reform, which employs incentives and disincentives to encourage behavior change, as illustrated by pollution taxes (fines) and tax credits (rewards) for installing pollution-preventing technology (see Gardner and Stern 1996 for a more sophisticated typology of policy approaches and detailed examples of each).

Environmental sociologists, along with other behavioral scientists, have conducted many studies that look at the efficacy of these different strategies for solving environmental problems, ranging from field experiments to evaluating alternative strategies for energy and water conservation. Motivating includes testing the effectiveness of information campaigns. Creating participation in recycling programs (see Gardner and Stern 1996 for a good summary).

Rise of environmental consciousness and movements

A second problem that is addressed centrally in environmental sociology literature is why environmental consciousness and movement have grown so dramatically in both Europe and America since the early 1970s. There are four main explanations put forward: the reflection hypothesis; post-materialism thesis; New Middle Class Thesis; and regulatory/political closure approach.

reflection hypothesis

The reflection hypothesis begins with the observation that environmental degradation in Western industrialized countries first began to climb after World War II, reaching its peak by the late 1960s. The dramatic surge in environmental consciousness and concern after the 1970s is interpreted as a directional response to this worsening situation.

Circumstantial evidence for this position is provided by Dunlap and Scars (1990), whose analysis of twenty years of polling data indicates that a majority of the American public perceives a wide range of environmental problems as a threat to their personal health and overall health. Started seeing as. environmental quality, and this threat has increased markedly. Furthermore, this majority perceives the quality of the environment as deteriorating and is likely to continue to do so.

More specifically, Zhlicka (1992; cited in Martel 1994) argues that green concern in Western Europe varies directly according to the severity of ecological conditions. Thus, environmental concern is highly developed in southern Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, northern France and Switzerland, where pollution of rivers, forests and works is most intense. In contrast, in the UK and Scandinavia where environmental degradation is less obvious, environmentalism is more moderate and embedded in mainstream politics.

However, other data have not supported this reflection hypothesis. While the quality of the environment has been steadily deteriorating for most of this century, the public has ignored them

development for most of this period. When the Izaak Walton League, an established American conservation organization, sponsored a National Clean Air Week in 1960 to try to acquaint the public with the existence of the national crisis, it encountered little popular interest or support. Instead, the perception of environmental problems may be independent of the magnitude of the problems themselves. For example, concern about air pollution in the United States arose in the late 1960s at the same time as declining levels of several common air pollutants in a broad sample of urban areas. This suggests that public concern is at least partially independent of actual environmental degradation and is shaped by other considerations; For example, the extent of mass media coverage.

Furthermore, most modern environmental problems, especially second generation problems such as acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion and toxic contamination, are likely to be invisible. with the naked eye except in the most extreme cases. As a result, the public perception that environmental problems have reached ‘crisis’ proportions is not necessarily the actual problem.

It reflects the reality of the states but also the particular point of view of scientific experts, environmentalists and the media.

Post – Materialism Thesis

A second explanation locates environmental concern as part of a more widespread shift in values among certain sectors of Western societies. The touchstone of this approach is the post-materialist theories of Inglehart (1971, 1977 and 1990).

Englehart’s interpretation is derived from the ‘hierarchy of needs’ proposed by the humanistic social psychologist, Abraham Maslow (1954). Englehart proposed that the economic concerns experienced by the older generation during the Great Depression and the two world wars had little meaning for the latter. The post-World War II ‘Baby Boom’ generation had the financial security that allowed them to satisfy their non-material needs and for personal fulfillment. This group was less interested in promoting economic growth and progress, instead pursuing materialistic values such as concern for ideas, the pursuit of personal growth, autonomy in decision-making, and improving the quality of the physical environment. Significantly, post-materialism was not just a life-cycle phenomenon, when the post-war generations settled down and started families of their own, but a permanent value change took place.

Thus, in contrast to the reflection hypothesis, the increase of environmental consciousness and concern is not seen as being directly related to the actual extent to which the environment has deteriorated. According to Cotgrove, ‘objective facts’ about pollution and environmental damage and depletion do not and cannot exist in some kind of cognitive and moral vacuum, but arise from an ethical debate on the nature of the good society which is called ‘ cannot be easily resolved’ {a} by appeal to facts and reasoned argument.

The post-materialist thesis has recently been challenged by Brechin and Kernpton (1994), who demonstrate that public environmental concern is not limited to advanced industrial countries but is present on a global scale. They present two types of evidence to support this: widespread grassroots environmental activism and a pair of cross-national opinion polls. Brechim and Kempton’s survey data analysis shows that higher percentages of respondents in some third world countries (India, Mexico, Uruguay) are willing to buy higher prices and taxes to protect the environment, compared to some such as Finland and Japan. and compared to industrialized countries. , Environmentalism, they conclude, should not be viewed as the product of a post-materialist shift in values, but rather appears to be a more complex phenomenon emerging from multiple sources in rich and poor countries alike.

The problem is that it is never made clear where these post-materialistic values originate from. It can be inferred that they are a function of interests; For example, industrialists might be expected to oppose an ideal society which, among other things, has a philosophy of no growth or is predominantly socialist. It is not easy to trace where post-materialists, including environmentalists, get their values from. Cotgrove promises to answer this question in the conclusion of his second chapter, but only then tells us that commitment to non-material values in adolescence is part of a long-term drift away from any strong allegiance to the culture of business. And they are more likely to occur in homes where parents have already adopted post-materialistic values. However, he believes that environmentalism is an expression of the interests of a new middle-class fraction who disagree with traditional paradigms that emphasize pro-business values. This is the basis for a third sociological explanation of the development of environmental consciousness and concern, the new middle class thesis.

new middle class thesis

The new middle class thesis is a companion to the post-materialism thesis but it places more emphasis on the social place of those who adopt the ethics of an environmentalist. According to this view, environmentalists are drawn disproportionately from that part of society that are called social and cultural specialists – teachers, social workers, journalists, artists and professions that work in creative and/or public service-oriented jobs. Huh.

It is not entirely clear why this occupational segment should be more inclined than other sections of the middle class to produce environmentalists with post-materialistic values. One possible explanation lies in the nature of their involvement and interactions with their customers. By virtue of their position, they are socially situated so as to witness firsthand the predation of the powerless by the harbingers of industrial progress. For example, doctors working in a community health clinic are level-headed.

High levels of soil in neighborhoods built around polluting, inner-city factories are effectively situated to see adverse effects on school children. As a result, they become personally involved in environmental problems to the extent of becoming advocates for the interests of their patients. Alternatively, it may simply be that people who enter occupations that have a significant creative or social welfare component are deliberately seeking to enter occupations that are already in their present state.

Jude may have been guided by a post-materialistic value orientation. In contrast, those who are more interested in technical or financial goals choose to work in banks, engineering firms, public works departments, etc. In fact, it is probably some combination of these that is the explanation that is operative here.

A useful comparison can be made to the widespread involvement of Catholic religious orders in movements for social change in Latin America, the Philippines and other Third World countries, initially guided by some altruistic values, it is only when Ireland and other European Missionaries from countries so directly confronted with the often violent realities of life among shirtless people in despotic regimes that they take an apparently activist and often radical approach. Similarly, members of the new middle class may enter their jobs with few inclinations, but it is the fact of being in the firing line of environmental injustice that pushes them toward a more pronounced ecological consciousness.

An alternative explanation that is associated with Peter Berger (1986) suggests

That this new knowledge class is not so much altruistic as intensely conscious of its own interests. Since they are most likely to enjoy the positive organizational fruits of NSM activism – jobs in universities, government departments, regulatory agencies and pressure groups, research grants, conference travel, etc. It is not surprising that members of the new middle class constitute the bulk of the constituency of support for environmentalism, feminism, anti-nuclearism, etc. Steinnett identifies two major difficulties in attempting to explain environmentalism such as the NSMS in the context of the rise of a new middle class.

First, he notes that recent research has indicated that the social composition of NSMs is more diverse than the class explanation suggests. For example, he cites evidence from public opinion and voting patterns in Germany in the late 1980s that indicates that the distribution of support for der Grünen (the Greens) was actually flatter. This is consistent with recent research in the United States on the environmental justice movement which reports increased attendance at environmental protests by members of disadvantaged groups. Steinmetz cites Beck’s observation that ‘need is hierarchical, haze is democratic’ to illustrate that in the contemporary ‘risk society’ we are all centrally affected by environmental problems, a fact that sooner or later everyone realizes. Will enhance environmental consciousness in the classes.

Second, he observes that even if the thesis that the new middle class is over-represented may be supported empirically, it may indicate that this group is equally capable of understanding and mobilizing against problems such as environmental degradation. Capable of, but with fewer positive resources are the lower classes. As it happens, segments of the middle class were similarly over-represented in many ‘old’ social movements – another indication that they have the resources (flexible time, leadership skills, etc.) that enable them to participate more intensely. allow.

Regulatory/Political Completion Approach

Finally, efforts have been made to lead to the rise of environmental consciousness and action by identifying tensions in the political system of some Western European countries.

From this perspective, new social movements are said to arise as a defensive reaction against the intrusion of the state into the daily lives of ordinary citizens – what Habermas (1987) calls the ‘colonization of the life world’, while it Generally fits. Better

It can also be seen as having some relevance to the environmental field, as an explanation of the growth of social movements organized around alternative sexual identities and lifestyles. For example it can be argued, as Beck (1992) does, that the proliferation of new chemical and nuclear, and more recently, biogenetic technologies has brought many new risks into the daily lives of modern citizens, governments, and governments. the originators of these risks; At other times henchmen of those who are the ones creating the risk. Hoffmann and Japp (1993; 438) argue that modern social movements such as the environmental movement choose as their targets risks that represent the ultimate threat to our ‘chance at life’ because they appear uncontrollable and irreversible: Nuclear power plants, deranged ecosystems, the arms race and biotechnology

Another level of this structural interpretation presents the rise of environmentalism in the context of ‘neo-corporatism’. Corporatist-type political systems exist when the state enters into partnership with private industry, and sometimes large labor unions, to bypass formal democratic processes and make important political and economic decisions behind closed doors. Oftentimes, this form of limited decision-making can result in damage to the environment, especially since corporatism is based on sustained economic growth and high levels of employment. For example, the 1992 Summer Olympic Games in Barcelona, which were held under the auspices of a public limited company that combined private capital with regional and state governments, resulted in environmental damage in several places, including the Natural Park of Collserola. damage caused. many plants

and remaining habitat for animal species.

It is argued that the political closure imposed by corporatist systems has given rise to new forms of ecological protest. The NSM is called upon to address grievances and topics (including ecological destruction) outside mainstream politics in civil society, which have been systematically marginalized by the corporatist state. Such issues are officially excluded because they are of no importance or challenge to the interests of the dominant parties in the corporatist partnership. Scott (1990) holds that nations in which political debate is subsumed by real or apparent consensus and decision-making dominated by a small group of ‘social partners’ (i.e. Austria, Germany, Sweden) are ecological. movements, especially the Greens, have been most active in the political

In West Germany, for example, bureaucratic policy-makers had, by the 1970s, increasingly avoided parliamentary institutions, preferring to make important decisions together with industry representatives behind closed doors. The rise of Die Gruns can be interpreted as an attempt to re-establish the democratic political link between the state and the citizenry, first through the formation of extra-parliamentary citizen initiative groups, and later alternatively again in parliaments. parties with the goal of helping to restore parliamentary legitimacy by entering from.

While these normative/political closed interpretations have the advantage of placing the rise of environmentalism in a wider historical and cultural context, they tell us more about the structural sources and challenges of the complaint than it does about any individual motivation by environmental activists. Tells more than comparisons. Adopt a ‘green’ view of the world (Steinmetz 1994: 195-6). Furthermore, while it is possible to understand why the center of gravity of environmental discourse in some European countries was to be found in ecological movements rather than politics, it is less clear how environmental grievances built into full-blown claims within these. New emerging green networks. This is particularly relevant as these decentralized NSM groups work on their new collective meanings and identities in a pre-political or private context rather than in the full glare of politics and public policy-making.

Forest Ecology and NTFP

Human life depends on forest for many purposes like shelter, subsistence, livelihood, timber, medicine, agriculture, aesthetics and many more.

Forests are the primary source and protector of natural resources. Indian forests are home to a wide variety of flora with about 600 species of hardwood trees including ‘sal’ and ‘teak’. Due to such great diversity, India is considered to be one of the mega biodiversity hotspots in the world.

Indian forest types include tropical evergreen, tropical deciduous, swamp, mangrove, subtropical, montane, scrub, sub-alpine and alpine forests.

In this module we will explore the world of forest ecology and one very important component of it, non-timber forest produce. We will try to understand the interlink between forest ecology, governance and livelihood. Let us see with the help of some case studies

Changing Roles of NTFPs.
How NTFPs are used by the community in different ways.

Historical Understanding of Forestry:

Historically before the colonial period, forests in India were largely ignored for the purpose of trade or economic exchange, but they had cultural, spiritual and social value. We often see narratives revolving around the forest in mythological texts and inscriptions which indicates the age-old relationship between man and the forest. Even today there are places called ‘sacred groves’ which are part of the forest but are considered sacred places by the people living there. The history of his dynasty is connected with these places.

The value people attach to a forest largely depends on their proximity to the forest, their economic dependence, and their historical, physical and cultural ties to the forest. For those who live close to forests and who depend on them for their livelihood, direct material needs and cultural and spiritual values prevail. People far away (for example urban populations) place more importance on aesthetic and recreational values, whereas on a global scale concerns are related to ecological and economic values.1

A major part of our population lives in forests located across the country. With a large population still living in villages and forest areas, it becomes extremely important for us

Understand the lifestyle of our people living in those areas and intrinsically related to forest resources. There have been many changes in the way forests were linked to communities and the role of the state in that dynamic. Forests play different roles in different spheres of life like social, economic, political and cultural. All these relationships and roles evolve over time and are constantly influenced by the role of different actors.

Forestry under British India:

British India saw dramatic changes in forest use, depletion and the role of the state in forest management. During the colonial rule in the country the requirement of timber and the requirement of land for crop cultivation

Yakata resulted in large-scale deforestation and conversion of forest land to agricultural land. India was one of the major suppliers of timber to the British in the late 1790s. The large-scale use of forest resources, especially timber, to facilitate the expansion of industries led to a supply shortage as the natural breeding system could not match the pace of demand. The increasing need for industrial development gave way to higher demands for natural resources, of which timber was the main one. The timber requirements were met from all over the country. For example, teak was used for shipbuilding industries and sal was used for railways.

The process of massive extraction and depletion of resources culminated in the advent of scientific forestry in 1864 and the establishment of the Indian Forest Service. Dietrich Brandeis, a German forester, was appointed as its first Inspector General. The colonial government restricted user rights to its own domain. Local communities were denied access to protect forests from overuse.

This was done through the Indian Forest Act 1865 amending the Indian Forest Act 1878 and later the Indian Forest Act 1927. Interventions were also made to change the forest structure, the slow growth of natural vegetation could not meet the requirements of the growing trade. , The best known example is the transformation of a mixed oak-coniferous forest into a single species of pine. This type of interference affected the livestock of the area, resulting in non-availability of food as the entire food chain got thrown into disarray. The needs of the colonial government were given high priority over the needs of the community and local people. These disturbances were at the root of many discontents in communities across the country and often resulted in rebellion against the government. one of the most famous rebel

There is a lakh chipko movement.

After Independence:

After independence, the government was still following the colonial law – the Indian Forest Act of 1927. Emphasis on this only after the implementation of Forest (Conservation) Act 1980

Shifted from an extraction oriented approach to conservation. It gave authority to the state in relation to the center as it gave space to the state governments to function without the permission of the central government. The Forest Policy came into existence in the year 1952 which was the successor to the Forest Policy of 1894. After the formulation of the Forest Policy in 1988, the thrust of the policy was directed towards the protection of the environment rather than the user-based embeddedness of its successors.

This involved participation of various levels of participation in the decision-making process by local level governance mechanisms such as panchayats, local communities, individuals. Several initiatives through various legislations and schemes like Joint Forest Management, Van Panchayat, Forest Conservation Committees, National Wasteland Development Board etc. have been launched for conservation purpose as well as to recognize community members as stakeholders. Forest related governance issues (of any nature: legislative, judicial or executive) have a major impact on a large section of the population as they not only live in forests but also depend on forest resources. Cultural and social traditional ties. An understanding of forestry and the lives of the communities concerned with it becomes an essential condition for understanding forest governance. Most of the communities dependent on forest products are tribal groups. They generally depend on minor forest produce or what is often called non-timber forest produce.

Forest Governance in India:

“Forestry provides a useful entry point for governance programs because of its focus that links the global with the national and the local; The higher level of income and other benefits it generates, and its importance in rural livelihoods and poverty alleviation. In addition, themes of public participation, accountability, transparent government, and pro-poor policy change have been at the heart of the Forest, which are also important dimensions of governance.

Forests fall under the Concurrent List in the 7th Schedule of the Constitution of India, which implies that both the Center and the States can make policies as long as the State’s policy does not come in conflict with the Union’s. Forest governance is mainly done in three ways

Governance by the State
Governance by Civil Society
Governance, jointly by both the state and civil society.3

Governance by the state is done at the central level where national policies on forests are made. Operated through legislations passed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, State Forest Departments and the Central Government. Governance by civil society refers to the cooperatives that make up the community and the management of resources. The most desirable form of governance today is governance where both the state and civil society jointly manage resources. Most legislation now focuses on the management of this type of resource where local people are treated as stakeholders through legal means, creating a sense of ownership by acknowledging their socio-political and economic rights over forests.

There are many laws in the country that have been passed and are ongoing. They have different specialties that focus on different aspects of forest ecology. below is the table

Source: Changing Models of Forest Governance in India: Development or Revolution? Line

SN Forest policy and act

Main characteristics

First Constitution of India (42nd Amendment) under Article 10

Act 1976 Article 48A The State shall endeavor to protect and improve and safeguard the environment

forests and wildlife

2 Under the Constitution of India

Section 11 (42nd Amendment) Act 1976 Article 51A Protection and improvement of the natural environment

It is one of the fundamental duties of every citizen including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife.

3 Forest Act, 1865 The first Forest Act was enacted in 1865 primarily to facilitate the acquisition of forest areas, which could supply timber to the railways.

Undermining the existing rights of the people.

4 Forest Policy, 1894 The objective of the first policy statement was to manage the state’s forests for the public benefit. Granted rights and restrictions to neighboring populations. local communities allowed to under-manage

forests to meet the needs of fodder and grazing

5 National Forest Policy, 1952 A resolution on the first forest policy after independence was issued in 1952. It emphasized the balance of economic, ecological and social benefits from forests. proposed as

Classification of forests on functional basis (i)

Singhal

Conservation Forests, (ii) National Forests, (iii) Village Forests, and (iv) Tree Land. The provision of centralized management was continued in this

policy.

6 The National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) 1976 ushered in major changes in this sector. Emphasized the need to focus on production of industrial wood for forest based industries, defense and communication. The need for business management skills in forest managers to meet current and future demands for protective and regenerative

works.

7 National Forest Policy, 1988 It was only after almost 25 years that the Forest Policy 1988 outlined community participation in the conservation and development of forests. The policy is effective from the date It is a comprehensive document with instructions on afforestation, agro-forestry, management of forests, rights and concessions, forest land wildlife protection, tribal communities, forest fires and grazing, forest based industries, forest extension, education, research, personnel management, . data base, legal and

financial help.

8 National Wildlife Action Plan, 2002 The National Board for Wild Life was constituted in September 2003 with full powers of law and land. responsibility to emphasize

conservation activities.

9 Joint Forest Management, 1990 (as per the provisions of the 1988 Policy) The primary objective of the National Forest Policy, 1988 is to ensure environmental stability and ecological balance. The policy also emphasizes the need to meet the domestic demands of rural people for forest products and involve them in the conservation and management of forests.

Forest. National Forestry Action

The Programme, 1999 also addresses the concern of the government towards sustainable forest management. Forest management became the joint responsibility of the communities and forestry personnel marked a paradigm shift. By 2005, all 28 states adopted 84,000 committees in September 2003, overseeing 17 million hectares of forest land. This figure has increased significantly due to central funding through the National Afforestation Program (NAP) and externally funded projects. Forest area is being seen as an important component in alleviating rural poverty and providing livelihood to the people.

communities living in and around forests.

The presence of legislations has made a lasting impact on the lives of the people. But many challenges exist for them as it depends heavily on the interaction of societies with legal provisions. There are various overlaps and disconnects in the legislations. For this, different bodies and authorities may be held responsible for proposing and making different laws.

Challenges to Forest Governance:

The major factor affecting forest administration is population which has created immense pressure on natural resources in general and NTFP in particular. The situation is even more dire in India as with only 2% of the world’s forests the country has to serve about 15%. of the world’s population. While about 45% of energy in the Third World comes from wood, in India more than 85% of rural energy is met from biomass and about 50% of this is collected from forests.4

Most of the NTFPs have been nationalized and there is very little room left for operations in a market expansion way.

Middlemen get the most out of NTFPs for two reasons:

The state is unable to reach the people directly and thus depends heavily on middlemen who facilitate the market. 2. The laborers engaged in collection and processing are ignorant of the market value of the produce and have little bargaining power. these factors cause

4 Hegde, Ng. “Development of non-timber forest product species to provide sustainable livelihoods in India”. Paper presented in the International Workshop on Global Partnership on Non-Timber Forest Products for Livelihood Development. International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR), Morocco. December 1–3, 2005

Disconnect in the volatile dynamics of labor, state and market and the process of development.

NTFPs are traced to economic exchange with the changing economic structure and higher integration of the population into the formal economic structure. This has converted NTFPs into commodities and to some extent encouraged people to protect and enhance them for their livelihood

Is. Kishore and Bayle (2004) argued that income had a statistically significant negative effect on deforestation, where increasing income is more likely to reduce deforestation and concluded that “improvement in governance can improve forest cover”. Curbing logging can have an indirect but strong effect”.5 He also argued that forest governance depends. Concentration of authority (centralization/

There is a clear lack of a comprehensive policy approach, this is basically because the NTFP produced and differentiated state regimes vary greatly. bamboo can be ta

Cane is taken as an example as it is considered as ‘minor forest produce’ under the Forest Rights Act 2006 and is treated as a wood product under the Indian Forest Act 1927. The provisions and privileges under PESA and Wildlife Protection Act are contradictory to each other. Regarding minor forest produce. These contradictions often lead people into problems and conflicts. Coherence and coordination are needed to utilize NTFP to the maximum possible extent in a sustainable and equitable manner.

Non Timber Forest Produce (NTFP):

Traditionally non-timber forest products refer to all organic material other than wood extracted from natural forests for human and animal use and having both consumption and exchange value. Globally NTFP/NWFP is defined as forest produce, which includes goods of biological origin other than forest, obtained from forest, other timberland and trees outside the forest. There is a broad category of 6 NTFPs based on their usage and importance.

NTFP for Food Security: It includes the products that people use for their diet and livelihood. Honey for example.
NTFP for Wood and Biomass: This refers to the use of wood for fuel, furniture and other such works and purchase of fodder and manure.

5 Kishore, Nalin and Aarti Bele. “Does Better Governance Contribute to Sustainable Forest Management?” Journal of Sustainable Forestry 19, no. 1–3 (2004): 55–79.

6th Report of Sub-Group II on NTFPs and their Sustainable Management in 12th Five Year Plan, 2011

NTFP for drugs and plant protection: NTFP has a traditional use for medicinal and healing purposes. Many new NTFPs are being discovered for this purpose. It is always used for human and animals. They are also used as insecticides and crop supplements. for many plants
NTFP for Aromatics, Dyes and Oilseeds: These are mostly used for industrial purposes.

NTFPs have constituted an important component of rural livelihoods in India, especially in tribal-dominated forest areas, besides they have constituted an important source of forest revenue in the country and have, therefore, been under the control of the Forest Department. Public and private interests have become increasingly interested in NTFP over the past few decades, as the case of the state of Chhattisgarh shows. 7 Non-Timber Forest Product Case Studies from India: Aajeevika School

The importance of NTFP is widely acknowledged by policy makers, economists, sociologists and others in various fields, as it plays a role as a ‘safety net’, especially in the lean season. Yet, most policies related to forests often undermine NTFP, which is estimated to account for about 68% of total exports from the forest sector. The NTFP currently accounts for the major income earned by the forest departments as several restrictions have been imposed on the felling of trees. The state often finds itself in a dilemma of protection and need of the people. If not kept under control, commercial use leads to over-extraction by the communities, while if a complete ban is imposed, it disturbs the life and ecosystem. alternative. They fail to make choices mainly due to poverty and unavailability of affordable alternatives.

In Chhattisgarh where 11185 out of total 19720 villages are covered by forest, the importance of NTFPs in livelihood security of rural population has prompted the state government to declare seven NTFPs viz. Tendu leaves, Sal seed, Harra, Gum (Khair) Is. , Dhwara, Kullu and Babul) and established the CGMFP Federation with the objective of promoting trade and development of these minor forest produce in the interest of MFP collectors, mostly tribal. The remaining other MFPs were left free to trade because their distribution and production varied by time and place. As a result, villagers will get assured minimum price for nationalized NTFPs, but less collection price for non-nationalized NTFPs due to inadequate market facility development in remote rural areas and often exploited by middlemen. Therefore, the state government issued a new state forest policy in 2002 declaring the state as a herbal state, with the objective of conserving NTFP based industries for processing of MFP.

To generate additional employment opportunities and provide health cover in the state. Accordingly, the CGMFP Federation developed a comprehensive program as “Sanjeevani” focusing on organized production, collection, processing and marketing through community based institutional and marketing arrangements

, A separate multidisciplinary task force under the chairmanship of Conservator of Forests (CF) has been set up within the federation to translate this program into reality. The present study is an attempt to understand the intervention in detail and its impact on the livelihoods of the rural poor.

The Chhattisgarh State Small Forest Produce Cooperative Union Limited came into existence in October 2000 as an apex organization with a three-tier cooperative structure after bifurcation of the erstwhile Madhya Pradesh State. The federation comprises an apex body at the state level, 32 district federations at the district level and 913 primary forest produce cooperative societies at the village level. At present there are about 10000 collection centers spread across the length and breadth of the state and covering about 9.78 lakh forest produce collectors, the union is engaged in nationalized activities like sal seeds, tendu leaves, hara and gum through this three-tier cooperative society. Collects and markets NTFP. structure. A task force was constituted under CF along with the Federation to achieve the objective of Herbal State following the new State Forest Policy. The major functions being carried out by the Sangh are:

a) Collection and trading of nationalized forest produce.
b) Assured market tie up with collection and trade of non-nationalized minor forest produce, including medicinal and aromatic plants.
c) Promotion of MFP-based processing units
d) Conservation Development and Sustainable Use of MFP
e) Promotion of cultivation of MFP species including medicinal, aromatic and dye plants.

(Livelihood Promotion through Non-Timber Forest Produce: A Case from Chhattisgarh State, Gautam and Sharma)

sanjeevani mart case

Sanjeevani Mart in Raipur is run by a ten member SHG formed in the year 2005. Over the years it involved saving and helping each other through small cash transfers. It was like a Home Savings Group (HSG). But since the group did not have its own source of income, it was difficult for them to deal with it and gradually it started disintegrating. The CGMFP federation developed Sanjeev Mart using funds from the European Commission supported project and invited expressions of interest from self-help groups to operate Sanjeevani. The year 2007 brought a new dimension to this SHG when it joined CGMFP Federation to run Sanjivani Mart. The Self Help Group did not make any investment. All the herbs and herbal products were supplied by Raipur Mart. SHG members received training in group dynamics record keeping in mind Ayurvedic medicines and information

Ten hours a day are divided among 10 members working in three shifts to run Sanjeevani. They have a mutual understanding about the timing and find two members running the shop at a time. Since the Mart is also attached, they get support from the authorities as well. Presently Sanjivani has 38 drug products which are supplied by Raipur Mart to the group on demand. Tie up with two local Vaidyas who sit twice a week at Sanjivani and prescribe herbal medicines to the customers. The usage of different medicines is also explained to the customers through technical pamphlets. by group members.

The group members also set up stalls for the sale of herbal products in the main Sanjeevani store as well as exhibitions and rentals. The SHG gets a commission of 15% on the total sales in the month. Monthly sales of herbs and herbal products in Raipur Sanjeevani ranges between INR 125000 and 150000 with commission ranging from 18750 to 22500. This amount is distributed equally among the members. They take pride in contributing 25-30 per cent of their family income. The Chairperson of the Self Help Group has started sending her children to convent school with the income from Sanjivani. Self Help Group members see this as a life changing opportunity. Now they also train other SHG members to plan to start Sanjeevani in their city/town. During the discussion, the members of the self-help groups told that the sale of herbal products is increasing every day. They also use their personal network to advertise and sell herbal products. However, the members also pointed out that many medicines which are in high demand by the consumers are not available at their Sanjeevani stores and this affects their relationship with the consumers. They demand regular supply from the market.

Climate change

Global warming

due to global warming

effects of global warming

Climate change

increase in global temperature

sea level rise

rain change

Effects on Humans and Human Health

effect of global warming on agriculture

loss of ecosystems and biodiversity

Science and technology have made many surprising gains in health and longevity over the past century. At the same time, our industrialized, carbon-dependent societies are causing massive environmental changes, such as global warming, that will undermine many of those advances. Many people fear that climate change is the greatest health threat of the 21st century. Furthermore, it is people who are socially, economically, culturally, politically and institutionally marginalized who are disproportionately affected by climate change, even though they have done little or nothing to produce it.

What does a sociologist need to know about climate change? Sociologists play an important role in climate change research by asking questions that are often overlooked. What are the driving forces of climate change? What is the role of the spread of ideology, large-scale institutional processes, or status consumption? Why and how is the science of climate change disputed? How is climate skepticism and climate denial developed and propagated through the media? How effective are social movements in policy making?

In short, efforts to address climate change are unlikely to be successful without the understanding of human behavior and social dynamics that sociology provides.

The scientific evidence for anthropogenic climate change has been established with increasing accuracy and there are widespread concerns about its potential to undo the public health gains of the last century (IPCC 2014). Human lifestyle has produced unprecedented changes to global and local ecosystems and a growing epidemic of chronic disease.

Climate is often defined as ‘average’ weather over a period of time. It is usually calculated from the averages and variability of temperature, precipitation and wind over a period of 30 years. Earth’s climate changes naturally over time, but when we talk about ‘climate change’ we usually mean changes that are anthropogenic, ie caused by humans, and resulting in an increase in average global temperature above and beyond the Earth’s geological normal variation. History.

Climate change is caused by the accumulation of gases in the atmosphere that prevent the sun’s heat from escaping back into space. These gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone etc. They are more effective at warming the Earth than others, and some may live

in the atmosphere for hundreds or thousands of years. In this module we focus on carbon dioxide (CO2) as it is the primary man-made contributor to global warming.

extracting the stored energy of carbon

The amount of carbon in the Earth’s atmosphere is constant and constantly moves between living and non-living things. Through photosynthesis, plants take CO2 from the atmosphere and release oxygen. This CO2 is converted into carbon compounds and stored. Animals absorb carbon by eating plants. Animals breathe in oxygen and release CO2, which is then available for plants to use in photosynthesis. When plants die and decompose, their carbon is released into the atmosphere or stored in the soil.

For most of Earth’s history, large amounts of carbon have been locked away in fossil fuels – coal, oil and gas – which are the remains of organic matter that lived millions of years ago. The Industrial Revolution unlocked the vast, explosive energy stored in fossil fuels. We use this energy to improve health, especially in industrialized countries, by developing infrastructure, goods production and transportation, access to clean drinking water, food, electricity for homes and workplaces. We also use energy to power transport and machines to make our lives easier, reducing the amount of personal energy used for work and travel. This ‘high-carbon’ lifestyle, in which energy from fossil fuels replaces human energy powered by food, is referred to as “development”.

The burning of fossil fuels has released carbon compounds (in the form of CO2 and other gases) into the atmosphere at a much faster rate than they are released naturally. Other human processes, such as clearing large areas of forest for agriculture or settlements, have reduced the Earth’s capacity to store carbon. We are beginning to realize the need for a more ‘sustainable’ model of development, building societies that meet the needs of the present generation and do not affect the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Is climate change happening?

The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has been monitoring scientific research on global temperature change since 1988. A 2014 report concludes that Earth’s average surface temperature has risen by 0.6°C since the late 1800s.

has gone up and is expected to increase. to a minimum of 1.4 degrees by the year 2100. This increase is larger than any century-long trend in the last 10,000 years and is primarily due to human activity. In the worst case, it could rise by more than 4 °C, a rise that would make it difficult for large-scale human civilizations to survive.

how do we know?

Since the 1950s, scientists have measured an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Temperature data collected from ancient sources (fossil records, pollen counts in ancient bogs, isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen in ice cores) show a strong relationship between temperature and atmospheric CO2 over the past 420,000 years. They also show that Earth was much cooler for most of this time, with “interglacial” periods lasting about 10,000 to 30,000 years.

Temperature data from tree rings, ship logs and meteorological stations show that the planet has warmed by about 1 °C over the past 150 years. The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased rapidly over the past 50 years. Current levels of CO2 are higher than any measured even in the oldest ice cores; In short, CO2 levels are now higher than at any other time in the history of Homo sapiens’ life on the planet.

A global temperature increase of more than 4 °C would have catastrophic effects on current ecological cycles, partly due to “tipping points” in the climate system. Generally, balance is maintained by negative feedback cycles, where a change in one direction (such as an increase in temperature or acidity) triggers mechanisms that oppose the change (decreasing temperature or acidity). The tipping point occurs when a change triggers a positive feedback cycle. A small change in one direction triggers more changes in the same direction. An example of a positive feedback is that as global temperatures rise, permafrost begins to melt and large amounts of methane accumulate in the tundra.

Methane is a greenhouse gas twenty times more potent than CO2, and its release would lead to faster and more warming.

Tipping point patterns are complex and difficult to predict with mathematical models, so the critical levels at which they occur are usually unclear. Further examples of climate tipping points include the melting of the Greenland ice sheet, the dieback of the Amazon rainforest, and the shift of the West African monsoon. Think about why these changes may ultimately mark a turning point.

Is it caused by human activity?

The term ‘anthropogenic climate change’ refers to that proportion of global warming that is caused by human activity. Scientists have accepted that human activity is the major cause of the current level of global warming. Population growth, urbanization and demand for transport, electricity and processed goods are the main drivers. Nearly half a trillion tons of carbon-based fossil fuels have been burned to power our current lifestyle. The burning of fossil fuels by humans, combined with deforestation for agriculture and building construction, has changed planetary ecosystems (see Figure 2).

Between 1959 and 2008, about 43 per cent of each year’s CO2 emissions remained in the atmosphere, while 57 per cent was naturally absorbed into land and ocean ‘carbon sinks’. The proportion of CO2 emissions removed from the atmosphere dropped from about 60 percent to 55 percent over this period. Models suggest that this trend was caused by a decrease in CO2 uptake by carbon sinks due to climate change and variability.

Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies

Greenhouse gases that have accumulated in the atmosphere since the Industrial Revolution have already warmed the Earth 0.8 degrees Celsius more than it would have naturally been. Some scientific models suggest that global warming may still be limited to a level that we may be able to manage (2°C) with immediate and substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Other models predict that keeping the temperature rise to below 2°C is unlikely or impossible.

Preparing for the changes resulting from global warming is called climate change adaptation. Adaptation measures include building heatwave warning systems and hedges to protect land from flooding and sea level rise, developing new agricultural crops for the changed climate, and improving living conditions and livelihood prospects for climate refugees.

But in addition to managing the changes we cannot prevent, we must seek to prevent the level of climate change we cannot manage; climate change mitigation. International proposals for climate change mitigation include reducing the amount of fossil fuels burned and protecting forests that absorb carbon.

National policies can be costly unless the cost savings of low-level climate change adaptation are factored in. Furthermore, many climate impacts, such as loss of human life, loss of cultural heritage and loss of ecosystem services, are difficult to value and monetize.

Implementing effective adaptation and mitigation practices requires the involvement of multiple sectors, including healthcare. continuous development

It addresses the environmental, social and economic dimensions involved in the transition to sustainable societies and communities.

Reasons to take action Reasons to avoid action

concern for long-term economic or

Country’s Environmental Sustainability Fossil Fuels Available Cheaply

Desire to keep the country at the forefront of new technologies by providing sustainable subsidies

Energy No domestic alternative to fossil fuels, or pre-

Current commitment to fossil fuel subsidies

Responding to popular demand Responding to pressure from corporate interests

health and climate change

The worldwide burden of ill health due to climate change is not well determined, but conservative estimates suggest that global warming already causes 200,000 premature deaths each year. More than 85 percent of climate change-related deaths occur in low-income countries, mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, and among children under the age of 5. By mid-century, climate change is expected to exacerbate existing health problems. and expanding the range of vector and water-borne diseases into new areas.

Even in rich countries, there is considerable evidence that preparedness is needed to reduce climate change-related harm. For example, the high temperatures in the European heat wave of 2003 resulted in over 30,000 heat-related deaths and caused billions of dollars in damage and significant loss of life from flooding.

Vulnerable populations—children, elderly people, people living in poverty, people living in certain geographic areas, and people with underlying health conditions—are at even greater health risk from climate change.

Air quality greenhouse gases such as ozone and airborne pollutants associated with the combustion of fossil fuels contribute to an array of respiratory and cardiovascular disease through inflammation of the airways.

Airborne ash from drought-related wildfires contributes to increase in asthma

High levels of atmospheric CO2 act as a fertilizer for plant growth. Earlier and longer-lasting indirect exposure to changes in temperature is expected to alter allergy seasons and allergenic plant distributions

Varieties

A decrease in the food yield of individuals, a rise in sea level and a change in rainfall patterns reduce crop yields and increase prices. Malnutrition increases the likelihood of infectious diseases, stunted growth, and hinders educational achievement.

Migration and conflict Forced displacement has a greater adverse health impact than voluntary or planned resettlement. These include malnutrition, food and water-borne diseases, sexually transmitted diseases, diseases of overcrowding (measles, meningitis, acute respiratory infections), maternal mortality,

Mental illness

Infection and vector borne

Changes in disease climate make the environment more favorable for human pathogens, allowing for more infections and for changes in the distribution of disease vectors.

Mental health trauma due to conflict, forced migration and extreme weather includes post-traumatic stress, generalized anxiety, depression, aggression, suicide, somatoform disorders and substance use.

Extreme weather events such as heat waves, hurricanes and floods pose immediate and direct risks from injury, illness and death.

Long-term risks include those arising from changes in air quality: increased concentrations of ground-level ozone inflame the airways making them more prone to asthma and emphysema, and air pollution increasing the risk of stroke and heart attack. is attached to.

Indirect risks arise from changes and disruptions to ecological and biophysical systems, affecting food yields, production of aeroallergens (spores and pollen), bacterial growth rates, range and activity of disease vectors (such as mosquitoes), and water flow and quality. Indirect effects of climate change will cause

The greatest number of disability-adjusted life years (DALYS) and death, but may be less noticeable because they occur slowly, follow complex causal pathways, and occur in poorer countries with less robust recordkeeping.

health inequality

The health impacts of climate change are unevenly distributed. Disadvantaged communities are not only most likely to be exposed to climate-related health hazards; As a result, they are more likely to be unwell (higher vulnerability) and have fewer resources to respond to disease.

The risk of weather-related natural disasters is approximately 80 times greater in low-income countries than in high-income countries. More than half of urban residents in Africa and Asia do not have access to adequate water and sanitation and a billion people live in slums in poor countries; Meanwhile, rich countries have harnessed fossil fuel energy to improve nutrition and sanitation, build infrastructure and combat infectious disease. Within countries, it is poorer members of society who are more likely to lack access to clean water, sanitation and healthcare, more likely to experience adverse working conditions during periods of extreme urban heat and increased food prices. more likely to starve because of Climate change.

The world’s poorest one billion people produce only 3 percent of global carbon emissions. I

The burden of disease therefore falls heavily on those who have contributed least to the problem of climate change.

climate change and food production

The production and transportation of food is essential in a world where the population is set to reach 9 billion people by 2050. Malnutrition has many effects. Moderate effects include stunted growth and impaired brain development. In extreme cases, children die from a combination of starvation and immunosuppression. At the population level, conflict is more likely when groups of people compete for food and arable land or are forced to migrate in search of better prospects elsewhere.

Food crop yields are sensitive to both high temperatures and extreme weather. Earlier scientific models suggested that while some agricultural regions would see significant reductions in food production due to heat waves and drought, others, particularly in the global north, would benefit from warmer weather and a longer growing season. Can be Now, however, it is expected that any benefits of a longer summer will be reversed by the effects of erratic weather, particularly prolonged rain storms interspersed with dry weather.

Case Study: Unaffordable Food

In 2007 a pediatrician in a university town in northern India serving a large, mostly rural population admitted a two-year-old boy with gastroenteritis, severe dehydration, and severe malnutrition. His parents were subsistence farmers. The boy and his mother had traveled for 8 hours to reach the ward after selling cattle to pay for bus and taxi fare to reach the hospital. The boy’s father and two of the boy’s siblings stayed at home to look after the crops. The boy was treated with IV fluids, but because his heart was weakened by malnutrition, the fluids pushed him into acute heart failure. He died within hours of reaching the ward.

Children with chronic malnutrition have poor immune systems, are prone to infections, and the biggest killer is acute gastroenteritis. In some rural clinics, 50 percent of children meet the World Health Organization’s criteria for moderate malnutrition. Staff noted that between 2006 and 2007 there was an increase in admissions with malnutrition. World grain prices had increased by 34 percent during the same period. By 2007 parents could only buy two thirds of the food they could buy before. Food prices peaked in mid-2008 at 250 percent of January 2006 prices.

The price increase was due to several factors, including rising oil prices that affect the cost of mechanized production, the use of grain to make biofuels (turning food into petrol) and market speculation. In addition, large-scale drought-related crop failures are attributed to the changing weather conditions that are predicted in climate change models.

Some questions to consider: –

Dependence of human health on global and local ecosystems

Contribution of human activity and population size to environmental changes

Mechanisms by which climate change affects human health

Central to the issue of climate change are the phenomena of global warming and the greenhouse effect. Earth supports life thanks to its gaseous atmosphere, which serves an important function of trapping heat that leaves Earth’s surface. The Sun’s energy drives Earth’s weather and climate. The Earth absorbs energy from the Sun and emits the energy back into space. However, much of this energy that goes back into space is absorbed by “greenhouse” gases in the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere then reflects much of this energy back to Earth’s surface, our planet is warmer than it would be if the atmosphere did not contain these gases. The average global temperature is 15?c. In the absence of greenhouse gases, this temperature would have been -18? C. This effect is called the greenhouse effect and contributes to a temperature rise of up to 33 °C. This regulates the average temperature of the planet and makes it suitable for life. The amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere depends mostly on the concentration of heat trapping or greenhouse gases and the duration of their stay in the atmosphere.

Green house gases causing global warming

Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere have historically varied as a result of many natural processes (such as volcanic activity, changes in temperature, etc.). However, humans have added significant amounts of greenhouse gases since the Industrial Revolution. happened during the last century

Combined with cutting down forests by burning fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, oil and gasoline to run our cars, factories, utilities and appliances, the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has been greatly increased.

other verbs.

The changes in atmospheric concentration of major greenhouse gases are described below:

carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide, the major greenhouse gas, is mostly controlled by the global carbon cycle and has increased over time. Carbon dioxide is released by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and biomass. as a result of deforestation

There is less absorption of carbon dioxide. CO2 levels in the atmosphere have risen steadily since the mid-1800s, when the Industrial Revolution began, and this is a cause for concern.

Due to non-deforestation, the level of carbon dioxide has increased further.

of carbon dioxide by plants through photosynthesis.

The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased from about 280 parts per million (ppm) in pre-industrial times to 382 ppm in 2006, an increase of 36 percent (according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Earth Systems Research Laboratory) ). Almost all growth is due to human activities

(IPCC, 2007). The current rate of increase in CO2 concentration is about 1.9 ppmv/year. Current CO2 concentrations are higher than at any time in at least the last 650,000 years (IPCC, 2007).

methane (CH4)

Other gases whose levels have increased due to human activities are methane, nitrous oxide. Methane is released from submerged rice fields and when waste materials decompose in an oxygen-free environment in garbage dumps. Cattle farming also contributes to increasing methane emissions. Methane is now more abundant in the Earth’s atmosphere than at any time in at least the last 650,000 years (IPCC, 2007). Methane concentrations increased rapidly during most of the 20th century and are now 148% above pre-industrial levels. In recent decades, the rate of increase has slowed down considerably.

nitrous oxide (N2O)

Nitrous oxide is produced during biomass burning and when nitrogen-based fertilizers are used. Nitrous oxide (N2O) has increased by about 18 percent in the last 200 years

and continues to grow. For about 11,500 years from the industrial period, N2O concentrations changed little. It increased relatively rapidly in the late 20th century (IPCC, 2007).

tropospheric ozone (O3)

Ozone is created by chemical reactions from automobile, power plant and other industrial and commercial source emissions in the presence of sunlight. It is estimated that O3 has increased by about 36% since the pre-industrial era, although substantial variations exist between regions and overall trends (IPCC, 2007). In addition to being a greenhouse gas, ozone can also be a harmful air pollutant at ground level, especially for people with respiratory diseases and for children and adults who are active outdoors. Measures are being taken to reduce ozone emissions in the US (through the Clean Air Act) and other countries as well.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydro-Chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

The gases are used in coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, insecticides, and aerosol propellants. These compounds have grown steadily since their introduction in 1928. The concentrations are gradually decreasing as a result of their phasing through the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

Fluorinated gases such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are often used as substitutes for CFCs and HCFCs and are increasing in the atmosphere. These various fluorinated gases are sometimes called “high global warming potential greenhouse gases” because, molecule for molecule, they trap more heat than CO2.

One of the major GHGs is carbon dioxide. Besides carbon dioxide, other naturally occurring GHGs are methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor. The concentration of these greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is important for maintaining balance in Earth systems. The heat trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is what keeps the planet warm enough for us and other species to survive.

effects of global warming

Compared to CO2, man-made greenhouse gases have a significant global warming potential (GWP) and remain in the atmosphere for much longer. added

The gases – mainly carbon dioxide and methane – are exacerbating the natural greenhouse effect, and contributing to increases in global average temperatures and related climate changes. Global warming is taking place as a result of the increase in the concentration of heat-trapping gases in the Earth’s atmosphere.

Warming or cooling of more than 2 °C over the past few decades could prove disastrous for various ecosystems on Earth including humans as it would alter the conditions of life.

Aster can adapt or migrate faster than some species. Some areas will become habitable due to drought or flooding after the mean sea level rises.

A sharp increase in concentrations of natural greenhouse gases has been noted since the Industrial Revolution (circa 1750), with human activities substantially increasing the amount of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The burning of fossil fuels and biomass (living matter such as vegetation) has also caused emissions and this only reinforces the fact that human activities are responsible for this increase.

The increased greenhouse effect will not only cause global warming but also affect various other climatic and natural processes.

Climate change

Climate models calculate that the global average surface temperature could increase by about 1 to 4.5 degrees centigrade by 2100. Global warming

Climate is creating an imbalance in the regulation systems and it has wide ranging effects.

Over the past few years, we have been witnessing changes in climate conditions in many places around the world – severe heat waves, unusually high rainfall in short periods of time, snowfall in places that normally do not occur and an increase in the number and Intensity of storms, windstorms and floods. Evidence of glacier retreat has been found across the world, including the Himalayas in Asia, the Alps in Europe, the Rockies and Alaskan glaciers in North America, the Andean glaciers in South America, tropical and subtropical glaciers in Oceania and New Zealand, Greenland, Iceland, etc. ,

Rise in global temperature:

It is estimated that if the input of greenhouse gases continues to increase at the present rate, by 2050 the average temperature of the Earth will rise between 1.5 and 5.5 °C. Even at the low value, the Earth would be as hot as it has been for 10,000 years.

Rise in sea level:

With the increase in global temperature, sea water will expand. The warming will cause the polar ice sheets and glaciers to melt resulting in further rise in sea level. Current models indicate that an increase in mean atmospheric temperature of 3 °C would lead to an increase in mean global sea level by 0.2–1.5 m over the next 50–100 years. Eventually, rising waters may carry away land inhabited by people, forcing them to relocate. A one meter rise in sea level would inundate low-lying areas of cities such as Shanghai, Cairo, Bangkok, Sydney, Hamburg and Venice, as well as agricultural lowlands and deltas in Egypt, Bangladesh, India, China and affect rice productivity Will be It would also disturb many commercially important spawning grounds, and likely increase the frequency of storm damage to lagoons, estuaries and coral reefs. Being largely populous and poor, Bangladesh would lose something like a sixth of the country to sea level rise. Bangladesh cannot build barriers to stop the sea, so people will have to move inland, increasing population density and increasing hunger and disease. The Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean have the same problem. They are a country of 1190 islands with an average elevation of about

1.5 m above sea level. If sea level rises, more than 200,000 people will have to leave their homes. Sea level rise will affect the lives of millions of people, especially those who live in the deltas of the Ganges, Nile, Mekong, Yangtze and Mississippi rivers.

In addition there will be flooding of coastal estuaries, wetlands and coral reefs; Beach erosion, salinization of coastal aquifers due to salt water and disruption of coastal fisheries. Warming oceans may also encourage toxic algae that can cause cholera. Some of the most beautiful cities like Mumbai can be saved by investing heavily in embankments to prevent floods.

rain change

An increase in temperature leads to an increase in evaporation which leads to more rain

(IPCC, 2007). As the average global temperature has increased, so has the average global rainfall. According to the IPCC, rainfall has generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900–2005, but has declined mostly in the tropics since the 1970s. It has become significantly wetter in North and South America, northern Europe, and eastern parts of northern and central Asia, but drier in the Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa, and parts of southern Asia. Although the number of heavy rainfall events has increased in many regions during the last century, the prevalence of drought has increased since the 1970s – particularly in tropical and subtropical regions.

Effects on humans and human health:

It is widely believed that by the year 2100a the global average temperature may increase by 1.4 degree to 5.8 degree centigrade.

And this can translate into heat and health issues for those who are unaccustomed or less prepared for the change. The effects of such changes in environmental temperature may result in more frequent extreme high maximum temperatures and less frequent low minimum temperatures.

“Climate change is expected to have widespread and mostly adverse impacts on human health, with significant loss of life,” said a statement released from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). As temperatures rise toward the poles, insects and other pests, like farmland, move toward Earth’s poles. These insects and pests can be allowed to migrate up to 550 kilometers or 550 miles. Some insects carry diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Thus, the increase of these particular insects and pests near the poles leads to an increase in these diseases. This could result in an additional 50 to 80 million cases of malaria annually, an increase of 10–15%.

The most obvious effect of global warming would be heat and cold waves. This will increase the number of deaths of both humans and animals. With the increase in heat waves, there will be more people who will suffer from heatstroke, heart attacks and other heat-aggravating illnesses. According to the EPA, “In July 1995, a heat wave killed more than 700 people in the Chicago area alone.”

Warmer conditions can also cause smog particles and harmful gases to linger in the air and speed up chemical reactions that produce other pollutants. This can increase the risk of respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and asthma. The danger increases.

Other health effects are those of weather-related disasters, and are an increase in the incidence of depression and psychological effects, in addition to immediate death and injury.

effect of global warming on agriculture

From the perspective of agriculture, it is believed that global warming is good for mankind, as it helps in increasing the food production. Climate change affects agriculture through direct and indirect effects such as changes in temperature, precipitation, biological and physical environments.

“The most determining factor in agricultural production is climate. History shows that for food production, warming is better than cooling. Also carbon dioxide is an essential nutrient for the production of food, and food is one of the most important factors in our lives. One of the important things. As temperatures rise, more farms will be open towards the poles and the length of the growing season will be longer. With all those people who go hungry every day, food production has to be one of our main concerns. needed.

Reduced availability of irrigation water due to warmer temperatures will also be a major negative for arid regions. Many of our most productive agricultural areas depend heavily on irrigation. In addition, irrigated areas (from evaporating water) have a local cooling effect that lowers temperatures, helping crops survive summer temperatures. Thus, less irrigation would lead to global-warming-induced temperature increases in water-scarce areas. It is worth noting that 40% of the world’s food supply comes from the 2% of land that is irrigated.

Agriculture will become increasingly difficult with the effects of global warming. Due to drought and other natural calamities, farmers will find it difficult to grow crops. We have some questions to consider: Will you be able to eat the same food you are used to eating? What will happen to the world’s food supply? The effects of global warming on agriculture are hypothesized to be:

Attack of diseases and fungi on crops:

The attack of diseases and other pathogens will reduce the quality and production. Without periods of normal cold, diseases and invasive species would spread more easily, affecting more of our world’s food supply. The farmers would either have to sell the food grains as is, or

Spray it with harmful chemicals that can harm our health.

Destruction of existing crops due to natural calamities

Floods, droughts, and hailstorms are just some of the problems farmers will have to deal with more frequently as global warming worsens.

Disappearance of once abundant food items:

Crops that are abundant may disappear or become more expensive. Devastating, recurring natural disasters, along with an increasing world population, will increase the demand for staple foods such as rice, corn, and wheat. This would lead to worldwide food shortages and dramatically increase prices.

Water availability is one of the most dramatic consequences of climate change for the agricultural sector. However, it is expected to be even more limited in the future. The water deficit is due to potential evapotranspiration-transpiration increase. It is related to the increase in the temperature of the air and the earth’s surface. This phenomenon is significant in climates with little rainfall, and even more so in arid regions. The number of areas with soil moisture loss is expected to increase, again

Direct economic consequences on production capacity (IPCC 1994). The decline in soil moisture implies a significant reduction in the potential productivity of dryland crops; This can be a threat to economic viability. Increase in heavy rainfall has an impact on erosion and soil desertification index. Higher evaporation-transpiration rates produce a higher frequency of times over which the soil surface is dry and, therefore, more vulnerable to wind erosion.

loss of ecosystems and biodiversity

Rapid climate change will have serious effects on natural ecosystems. Plant and animal species will be forced to migrate to keep up with climate change. Species adapted to colder climates may become extinct as their habitats disappear. The damage to sensitive ecosystems can be enormous. Large areas of forests may disappear due to extreme heat waves and more wildfires. Forest fires can further increase the CO2 load in the atmosphere.

struggle

The impact of climate change will affect the social and economic structure of nations

Worldwide. Terrorism, civil war and economic crisis can be some of the consequences. The environmental imbalance caused by global warming can lead to war-like conflicts between nations for resources like water. Sea level rise and changing weather patterns could lead to mass migration from more severely affected areas. All these consequences of global warming will result in huge financial loss.

Management

There is a lack of unanimity among scientists regarding the uncertainties in global warming models and the consequences of rising levels of greenhouse gases.

This has seriously reduced the possibility of suggesting management solutions. At the political level there are three schools of thought ranging from drastic measures to reduce greenhouse gases to suggestions that nothing should be done. The first approach is a wait and see approach. Believers of this view believe that global warming will not necessarily be harmful and that until overwhelming adverse climate change has become established, counter measures are inappropriate. The second approach is “adaptation to incurable change”. According to this view, prevention of global warming is useless and instead humanity should rely on its innate ability to evolve to adapt to changes in the environment. A third approach to global warming is the “act now” approach that calls for an immediate legislative response.

The different management approaches can be classified as

Reduction in the amount of green house gases emitted into the environment by the burning of fossil fuels. efficiently remove carbon dioxide from the smoke stack;
Complete elimination of fossil fuels as energy sources and transition to renewable energy resources that do not emit GHGs;
Increasing the use of energy efficient and clean production technologies processes;
Reduction in the effects of greenhouse gas emissions by reforestation for alternative methods of CO2 sequestration or reduction in carbon dioxide disposal;
Adoption of practices and techniques to make agriculture sustainable;
To create mass awareness about the need to take appropriate steps for a safe and sustainable environment.

global effort

In 1990, the United Nations General Assembly established the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) for the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). The Convention was signed in June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro by 154 countries and the European Union (EU). By November 1999, 181 states and the European Union had ratified the convention, which committed signatories to make voluntary efforts to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.

At a meeting of member states held in Kyoto in December 1997, representatives approved the Kyoto Protocol and called for a joint reduction of GHG emissions by industrialized countries to 5 percent below 1990 levels. These targets were set to be achieved in the period 2008–12, known as the first commitment period.

Total

The reduction of carbon dioxide emissions should be reduced either by global efficiency, removal of harmful gases from thermal plants and flue gases of industries, or by using new energy sources. Deforestation is more important because slash and burn agriculture in the tropics is devastating to the environment. There is a need to shift from coal and gasoline to natural gas plants and to embrace solar, wind, geothermal and nuclear energy efforts. Plant more and more trees.. Remove atmospheric carbon dioxide by using photosynthetic algae.

climate change and carbon footprint

Carbon dioxide is one of the essential gases in the environment and also an important nutrient of biogeochemical cycles without which the system would collapse. Carbon dioxide is necessary for plants to produce food through photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide also plays a major role in keeping Earth warm enough to be habitable. Also the excess of CO2 is dangerous for the stability of our planet. In this module, we will try to understand why this gas has gained a central place in the discussions about mitigating climate change. We’ll begin with some conceptual clarification on a phenomenon related to our topic: sources of carbon, the Earth’s radiation budget, climate change, and the greenhouse effect. Addressing and understanding the problem at the individual level and at the international level through carbon footprint and emissions trading. We will find out what steps are being taken to reduce the problem of carbon emissions through economic instruments like carbon trading, its evolution so far and India’s stand on it.

sources of carbon

There are many sources of carbon and below are examples of sources of carbon and how carbon is returned to the system from the atmosphere. Carbon was naturally present in the atmosphere, but the increase in human activities such as industrialization and the continuous increase in the combustion of fossil fuels lead to an excess of carbon in the atmosphere in the form of carbon compounds. Due to increasing deforestation, excess of carbon is not able to stabilize and remains in the atmosphere. The remaining carbon in the form of carbon dioxide forms a layer around the Earth that traps

Helps in keeping heat and earth warm when there is no source of heat i.e. during night time. This CO2 excess will result in excess heat being trapped. More details about this will be explained in the subsequent sections.

Source – Thomas M. Smith – Chapter 23 / p. 449

Earth’s radiation budget

To understand the role of CO2 we need to understand its place and functions in the Earth’s radiation budget (energy entering, reflected, absorbed and emitted by the Earth system).

are components of the Earth’s radiation budget). Radiation with shorter wavelengths enters the Earth’s atmosphere. Most of it is radiated back by the atmosphere but a part of it is absorbed and trapped by the gases in the atmosphere, these are called

Green house gases. They emit the absorbed energy through radiations of longer wavelengths in all directions. Part of that radiation escapes the Earth’s atmosphere and the remaining emissions heat the lower atmosphere. This heats up the surface of the earth. This heating mechanism is known as green house effect and the gases involved in this process are green house gases

Source: IPCC Fourth Report

What is Greenhouse Gas (GHG)?

“Greenhouse gases” refers to those gaseous components of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit infrared radiation.

The GHG basket consists of six direct gases, namely: CO2 – carbon dioxide; CH4 – methane; N2O – nitrous oxide; PFC – Perfluorocarbon; HFCs – hydrofluorocarbons and SF6 – sulfur hexafluoride.

Why carbon?

In explaining the radiation budget, we looked at the mechanism by which the Earth’s surface is heated. One of the gases that absorbs terrestrial radiation (radiation from Earth) is CO2. There are many other GHGs that absorb radiation such as water vapour, methane, nitrous oxide but what comes to mind are two things: abundance and residual between large sources and sinks.

Abundance: CO2 is the second most abundant GHG after water vapor. The problem is its airborne fraction (AF), defined as the fraction of anthropogenic (made by humans) carbon emissions that remains in the atmosphere after natural processes have absorbed some of them. The main reason for this increased amount is the emissions from various sources like industries, power plants etc. Human induced high emissions have increased especially after the industrial revolution.

This created an imbalance between sources and sinks of the gas (CO2) as natural sinks (where the gas is absorbed) are unable to absorb the large amount of CO2 produced and as a result it remains suspended in the atmosphere. This is known as the residual between sources and sinks. Major sinks for CO2 are forests, oceans

The diagram below shows the sinks and sources of carbon through the carbon cycle.

What are the sources and sinks of CO2?

Sources are points of release of CO2 into the atmosphere. The major sources of CO2 are:

Combustion: CO2 is released by burning of fuel
Land Use Change:

Combustion: The burning of fossil fuels is the major source of CO2 in the environment.

What is fossil fuel?

Fossil fuels—coal, petroleum (oil) and natural gas—are in the form of

Evolved from organic matter within the Earth’s crust over the course of millions of years. The age in which they were formed is called the Carboniferous period. The ‘Carboniferous’ get their name from carbon, which is the basic element in fossil fuels. It has got the name ‘fossil’ because of the period of its formation and its location under the earth. Fossil fuels are currently the world’s primary energy source. However, fossil fuels are limited resources and they can also cause irreparable damage to the environment. There are various techniques like carbon capture and carbon storage to deal with this problem.

What is carbon capture and storage?

Carbon capture and storage (CCS), also known as carbon capture and sequestration, is a process that collects carbon dioxide (CO2) that would otherwise be emitted into the atmosphere by industrial and power generation sources, and long pumps it deep underground for long-term storage. ,

Carbon dioxide (CO2) can be captured before or after combustion. In integrated gasification and combined cycle power plants, carbon dioxide is removed pre-combustion in the gasification process. In conventional coal-fired power plants, carbon can be captured after combustion using a refrigerated ammonia solution, which captures the pollutant from the flue gas before it is released into the atmosphere.

People and Carbon Emissions: Carbon Footprints

With the aim of reducing GHG emissions, governments, decision makers and businesses have started looking for ways and means to reduce global warming. This brings up the need to understand which activities increase GHG emissions and how they can be effectively reduced. Thus, the ‘carbon footprint’ (CF) concept has become a popular tool for estimating GHG emissions related to human activities. Despite its increasing presence and acceptance by the media, business houses, and often being mentioned by world leaders during their presentations on climate change, there is no agreed definition, use, or measurement of the carbon footprint.

The origins of the carbon footprint can be traced back to the concept of ‘ecological footprint’ in the early 1990s. Ecological footprint refers to the biologically productive land and sea area required to sustain a human population, expressed as global hectares (Wackernagel and Rees 1996 and Rees 1992).

According to this concept, carbon footprint refers to the land area required to assimilate the entire

Essential CO2 is produced by mankind during its lifetime. Over time as the issue of global warming took prominence in the world environmental agenda, the use of carbon footprint independently became common, albeit in a modified form (pre 2008). The concept of carbon footprinting has been in use for several decades, but is referred to differently as the life cycle impact category indicator global warming potential (Finkbeiner 2009). So

The current form of carbon footprint can be seen as a hybrid, taking its name from “ecological footprint”, and conceptually a global warming potential indicator.

Carbon footprint is a measure of an individual’s contribution to global warming in terms of the amount of GHGs produced by that individual and is measured in units of carbon dioxide equivalent (Linas, 2007).

What is “CO2 equivalent”?

GHG emissions/removals can be expressed either in terms of physical units (such as grams, tons, etc.) or in terms of CO2 equivalents (gram CO2 equivalent, ton CO2 equivalent, etc.). The conversion factor from physical units to CO2 equivalent is the Global Warming Potential (GWP) of the relevant GHG. If X Gg of CH4 is to be expressed in terms of CO2 equivalent, it is multiplied by 21, which is the GWP of CH4 on the 100 years time scale (UNFCCC Secretariat).

The carbon footprint is made up of the sum of two parts, the direct or primary footprint is a measure of our direct emissions of CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, including household energy consumption and transportation (such as cars and aircraft); And the indirect or secondary footprint is a measure of indirect CO2 emissions from the entire lifecycle of the products and services we use, including those associated with their manufacture and eventual breakdown (Tucker and Jensen, 2006).

There is a growing awareness of individual behavior or lifestyle as a source of global carbon emissions (Bin and Daulatabadi, 2005). Calculating personal and household carbon footprints is a powerful tool that enables individuals to quantify their own carbon dioxide emissions and link them to activities and behaviour. Such models play an important role in educating the public in the management and reduction of CO2 emissions through self-assessment and determination. The carbon emissions model could potentially be used in the future as the basis for the calculation of carbon taxes, the allocation of carbon units and individual carbon

Business.

In the available literature, other terms are sometimes used as synonyms or synonyms of carbon footprint, such as carbon, carbon content, embedded carbon, carbon flux, virtual carbon, GHG footprint and climate footprint.

While the term itself is rooted in the language of ecological footprint, the general baseline is that carbon footprint stands for a certain amount of GHG emissions that are relevant to climate change and associated with human production or consumption activities. But this is where the similarity almost ends. There is no consensus on how to quantify or measure a carbon footprint. The spectrum of definitions ranges from direct CO2 emissions to full life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions and the units of measurement are also unclear.

“… a technology for identifying and measuring greenhouse gas emissions separately from each activity within a supply chain process step and a framework for attributing these to each output product (we [The Carbon Trust] call this product by product will be referred to as

‘carbon footprint’).” (CarbonTrust 2007, p.4)

Energetics (2007) “…the full range of direct and indirect CO2 emissions”

your business activities.

ETAP (2007) “…the ‘carbon footprint’ is a measure of the impact of human activities on the environment

The production of greenhouse gases is measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide.

While academics have largely neglected the issue of definition, consultants, businesses, NGOs and the government itself have stepped forward and provided their own definitions. In the UK, the Carbon Trust aims to develop a more general understanding of a product’s carbon footprint. (Carbon Trust 2007). This emphasized that only inputs, outputs and unit processes that are directly linked to the product should be included, while some indirect emissions – e.g. From workers coming into the factory – don’t factor in. A more inclusive definition is set out by Wiedmann, T. and Minx, J. (2008). “The carbon footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide emissions directly and indirectly caused by an activity or accumulated over the life stages of a product.”2 The central concern remains climate change.

Climate Change and UNFCCC

There is growing scientific evidence that burning fossil fuels contributes to rising temperatures and extreme weather events. The effects of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from burning fossil fuels from human activities are dramatically changing the environmental, political and social landscape and climate change. “Climate change” means the change of climate which is

directly or indirectly attributed to human activity that changes the composition of the global atmosphere and that

is in addition to the natural climate variability observed in the FCCC 1992).

In 1992, during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, or better known as the ‘Earth Summit’, countries agreed on legal obligations on GHG emissions. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) aims to curb global climate change and came into force on 21 March 1994. Stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Convention.

Such a level must be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to naturally adapt to climate change, ensure that food production is not threatened, and allow economic development in sustainable ways. … stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.

The start of negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol really made ‘carbon’ a 21st century ‘thing’, where the carbon footprint and carbon trading concepts took shape.

Kyoto Protocol and Emissions Trading.

Command and Control (CAC) and Economic Incentive (EI) are two major tools that were used in policy making regarding the improvement of the environment. The CAC emphasizes adherence to stringent standards to reduce emissions and an economic model of taxation based on both production and consumption of emissions through EI tradable units, emission fees and exchanges. The Kyoto Protocol adopts the EI model to control emissions.

Adopted in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which commits its parties by setting internationally binding emissions reduction targets (UNFCCC). Recognizing the role of economies in the emission of carbon through their industries and economic models, it was being formulated in hopes of encouraging economies to reduce their emission levels. The Kyoto Protocol operates on the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities”. Through this principle, the protocol places a heavy burden on developed countries to reduce and prevent emission levels. The following are categories of Parties as defined by the UNFCCC according to their commitments.

The Kyoto Protocol entered into force in February 2005 with its first commitment period from 2008 to 2012. In December 2012 the “Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted” for a second commitment period from 2013 to 2020. The major contribution of this amendment was

One. It defined new commitments for Annex I parties

Revised list of reportable greenhouse gases

The Protocol operates primarily through national measures of the Parties (countries), but has also provided for market-based mechanisms to achieve, promote, and incentivize the goal.

Annex I parties include industrialized countries that were members of the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) in 1992, as well as countries with economies in transition (EIT parties), including the Russian Federation, the Baltic states, and several Central and Eastern European states. .

Annex II Parties include OECD members of Annex I, but not EIT Parties. They are required to provide financial resources to help developing countries carry out emission reduction activities under the Convention and adapt to the adverse effects of climate change. In addition, they must “take all practicable steps” to promote the development and transfer of environmentally friendly technologies to EIT Parties and developing countries. Funding provided by Annex II Parties is channeled mostly through the financial mechanism of the Convention.

The non-Annex I parties are mostly developing countries. Certain groups of developing countries are recognized by the Convention as being particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, including low-lying countries and those prone to desertification and drought. Others (such as countries that rely heavily on income from fossil fuel production and commerce) feel more vulnerable to the potential economic impacts of climate change response measures. The Convention emphasizes activities that promise to respond to the special needs and concerns of these vulnerable countries, such as investment, insurance and technology transfer.

The 49 Parties classified as least developed countries (LDCs) by the United Nations receive special attention under the Convention because of their limited ability to respond to climate change and adapt to its adverse effects. Parties are urged to take full account of the special status of LDCs when considering funding and technology-transfer activities

Several categories of observer organizations also attend sessions of the COP and its subsidiary bodies. These include representatives of UN secretariat units and bodies such as UNDP, UNEP and UNCTAD, as well as

and its specialized agencies and related organizations, such as the GEF and the WMO/UNEP Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

international emissions trading

Clean Development Mechanism

joint implementation.

International emissions trading: application of market-based approaches to GHG emissions control, in particular carbon. Essentially this means treating pollution as a commodity. It operates as a trade in pollutants through a “cap and trade” system. It entails the creation of a cap on emission levels and then considers that cap as the basis for making permits. It can be seen as a policy instrument to control GHG emissions. Aimed at promoting operational excellence through existing and new technologies.

Clean Development Mechanism: allowing an Annex B country to implement a project targeted at emissions reduction. Such projects can earn marketable certificate

Integrated Emission Reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets (UNFCCC).

Joint Implementation: A mechanism known as “Joint Implementation”, as defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows a country to implement Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) with an emission reduction or limit commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B party). allows you to earn. An emissions-reduction or emissions-removal project in another Annex B party, each one tonne of CO2 equivalent, can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target (UNFCCC).

Parties with commitments under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Parties) have accepted targets to limit or reduce emissions. These targets are expressed as levels of emissions or “prescribed amounts” allowed during the 2008–2012 commitment period. Permitted emissions are divided into “specified amount units” (AAUs). Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows countries that have excess emissions units – emissions allowed but not “used” them – to sell this excess capacity to those countries. that exceed their targets (UNFCCC).

What is ERU?

An “emission reduction unit” or “ERU” is a unit equal to one metric ton of carbon dioxide, calculated using the global warming potential as defined by the Parties to the UNFCCC.

What is CER?

A “Certified Emissions Reduction” or “CER” is a unit of emissions equal to one metric ton of carbon dioxide released, calculated using a global warming potential as defined by the parties.

What is AAU?

An “Aspected Amount Unit” or “AAU” is a unit equal to one metric ton of carbon dioxide, calculated by the Parties using a global warming potential.

What is RMU?

A “removal unit” or “RMU” is a unit equal to one metric ton of carbon dioxide, a carbon credit related to land use and forestry.

Where does India stand?

Given India’s socioeconomic and geopolitical situation, there are larger issues that limit its commitment to the Protocol. Several initiatives have been taken by the government at the national level to combat climate change in general and emissions in particular. A historical argument made by developing countries is that the bulk of the burden of emissions control should be borne by developed countries. The argument is rooted in the observation that anthropogenic emissions have steadily increased since the Industrial Revolution and developed countries were the main host.

Whether or not every country becomes a signatory to the protocol, the damage that high-speed emissions have done is obvious and future problems can be predicted from that. there is one

There is a great responsibility at the global level that all countries have to participate to ensure that it is done with all sincerity.

Acid rain

formation of acid rain

effects and effects of acid rain

acid rain mitigation

Society’s role in combating acid rain

An analysis of ice cores from Greenland indicated that anthropogenic sulfate has dominated sulfur deposition since the early twentieth century and anthropogenic nitrate has dominated nitrogen deposition since about 1960.

Acid rain is an invisible environmental threat to society. The term acid rain was first coined by the British chemist Robert Angus Smith in 1852 to describe the high acidity of rain due to the presence of sulfuric acid due to fumes from the burning of coal in Liverpool, Glasgow and other British industrial centres. , Smith estimated the various effects of acid rain on trees and crops and the corrosion of metals. In the 1950s, Avril Gorham, a Canadian ecologist at Dalhousie University, came across Smith’s work and documented the effects of acid rain in English Lake and around the Inco nickel mining smelter located in Sudbury, Canada. The acid rain debate spread to the United States in 1974 when Likens and Borman’s work was published in the journal Science. The environmental problem of acid rain has become a very important pollution problem of the present time.

Amli

This rainfall is recognized as a global and a trans-boundary environmental problem. Areas most affected are areas with coal-fired power plants, smelters or factories, or major urban areas with large numbers of motor vehicles, e.g. Acidic emissions from industrial areas in Western Europe (particularly the United Kingdom and Germany) and Eastern Europe blew into Norway, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Finland.

The worst acid deposits are in Asia, especially China, which gets about 59 percent of its energy from burning coal. According to scientists’ estimates, by 2025, China will emit more sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide than the United States, Canada and Japan combined.

Acid rain is the term for the atmospheric deposition of acidic substances. Acidic substances are deposited not only by rain and other types of moist air but also in the form of dry particles.

Precipitation is normally mildly acidic, with an average pH of 5.0. pH is the measurement for acidity, the lower the number, the more acidic the substance, with 7.0 being the divide between acidity and alkalinity.

formation of acid rain

Acid rain precursors originate from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made sources, primarily from emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion. acid rain occurs

When these gases react with water, oxygen and other chemicals in the atmosphere

various acidic compounds. The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released from power plants and other sources, prevailing winds blow these compounds across state and national boundaries, sometimes hundreds of miles.

Wet deposition refers to acid rain, fog and snow. When acid chemicals in the air are blown over areas where the weather is wet, the acid can fall to the ground in the form of rain, snow, fog or mist. As this acidic water flows above and below the ground, it affects a wide variety of plants and animals. The strength of the effects depend on several factors, including how acidic the water is; the chemistry and buffering capacity of the soil involved; and fish, trees, and other living things that depend on water.

dry freeze

In areas where the weather is dry, acid chemicals can become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the ground, buildings, houses, cars and trees. Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from these surfaces by rainstorms, increasing runoff. This runoff water makes the resulting mixture more acidic. About half the acidity of the atmosphere falls back to the earth by dry deposition.

effects of acid rain

effects on human health

Acid rain—sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) producing pollutants harm human health. These gases combine in the atmosphere to form microscopic sulfate and nitrate particles that can be carried by the wind over long distances and can be carried deep into people’s lungs. Fine particles can also enter indoors. There have been many scientific studies

identified an association between elevated levels of fine particulate matter and increased disease that contribute to human respiratory disease such as bronchitis and asthma. It can leach out toxic metals like lead and copper

, Drinking water from water pipes causes many diseases.

effects on property and materials

Acid rain and the dry deposition of acidic particles contribute to the corrosion of metals (such as bronze) and the deterioration of paint and stone (such as marble and limestone). These effects significantly reduce the social value of buildings, bridges, cultural objects (such as statues, monuments and tombs). For example, the Parthenon in Greece and the Taj Mahal in India have been affected by acid rain.

Effects on Aquatic Ecosystem

The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in aquatic, or water, environments, such as streams, lakes, and marshes. Acid rain flows into rivers, lakes and swamps after falling on forests, fields, buildings and roads. Acid rain also falls directly on aquatic habitats. Most lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8, although some lakes are naturally acidic even without the influence of acid rain. Acid rain mainly affects sensitive bodies of water, located in watersheds, which have a limited capacity to neutralize acidic compounds in the soil (called “buffering capacity”). Lakes and rivers become acidic (i.e., the pH value goes down) when the water itself and the soil around it are unable to buffer acid rain sufficiently to neutralize it. In areas where buffering capacity is low, acid rain releases aluminum from the soil into lakes and streams; Aluminum is highly toxic to many species of aquatic life. Acid rain causes a cascade of effects that harm or kill individual fish, decimate fish populations, eradicate fish species altogether, and reduce biodiversity. Makes it Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate

Acidic water. Un

They are, however, sensitive to acid and will be lost as the pH drops. Generally, the young of most species are more sensitive to environmental conditions than the adults. At pH 5, most fish cannot spawn. At low pH levels, some adult fish die. Some acid lakes do not contain fish.

Effects on Soil and Plants

Rain in the forest washes the leaves and falls through the trees to the forest floor below. Some water drips onto the ground and runs into streams, rivers, or lakes, and some seeps into the soil. Soil can neutralize some or all of the acidity of acidic rainwater. This capacity is called the buffering capacity and without it the soil becomes more acidic. Differences in the buffering capacity of soils are an important reason why some areas that receive acid rain show much damage, while other areas that receive roughly the same amount of acid rain show no damage at all.

The ability of a forest to resist or buffer soil acidity depends on the thickness and composition of the soil as well as the type of rock beneath the forest floor. Acid rain usually does not kill trees directly. Instead, trees are more likely to be weakened by damage to their leaves, by limiting the nutrients available to them, or by exposure to toxic substances that are slowly released from the soil. Often, these effects of acid rain in combination with one or more additional hazards result in tree injury or death.

Research shows that acidic water dissolves nutrients and helpful minerals in the soil and then washes them away before trees and other plants can grow. At the same time, acid rain causes the release of substances that are toxic to trees and plants, such as aluminum, into the soil. Scientists believe that this combination of soil nutrient loss and an increase of toxic aluminum may be one way acid rain damages trees. Such substances are also washed away in runoff and carried into streams, rivers and lakes. When the rain is more acidic, more of these substances are released from the soil.

However, trees can be damaged by acid rain even if the soil is well buffered. Forests in high mountain regions are often exposed to higher amounts of acid than other forests because they are surrounded by acidic clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain. It is believed that when the leaves are repeatedly bathed in this acidic fog, their leaves and needles are stripped of essential nutrients. This loss of nutrients in their foliage makes the trees more vulnerable to damage from other environmental factors, especially cold.

Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way that it harms trees. Although damaged by other air pollutants such as ground-level ozone, food crops are usually not severely affected because farmers often add fertilizer to the soil to prevent nutrients from being washed out. They can also add crushed limestone to the soil. Limestone is an alkaline material and enhances the soil’s ability to act as a buffer against acidity.

Acid rain control measures

The control of acid deposition is a regional problem and a complex political problem for three basic reasons:

First, populations and ecosystems are affected by aci

The rain is at a distance from the areas that are really causing the problem.

Secondly, countries with large reserves of coal (such as China, India, Russia and the United States etc.) are keen to use coal as the main energy resource.

Third, the owners of thermal power plants and industries are of the opinion that the cost of adding equipment to reduce air pollution, using low-sulphur coal, or removing sulfur from coal is too high which in turn increases the cost of electricity. Will increase consumer.

The best solutions are preventive approaches to reduce or eliminate emissions of SO2, NOx and particulates

Reduce the use of coal and other fossil fuels: Reducing the use of coal and other fossil fuels is the most effective way to reduce sulfur and nitrogen dioxide released into the air.
Reduce air pollution by improving energy efficiency: Using energy efficient sources of energy can reduce air pollutants in the air, thereby reducing the gases that cause acid rain.
The use of natural gas will have to be increased: The use of natural gas for power generation will have to be increased as an alternative to coal in thermal power plants, the main consumers of coal.
Renewable energy sources should be given priority: Use renewable energy

Resources like solar energy, wind energy etc. can reduce the pollution load in the atmosphere.

Burn low sulfur coal: Most of the sulfur dioxide produced, which leads to acid rain, is due to the burning of sulfur-rich coal. Before burning the coal, it can be washed. On the other hand, low sulfur coal can be replaced with high sulfur coal.
Remove SO2, NOx and particulates from stack flue gases: Such equipment

scrubbers that can be installed in tall stacks or chimneys

furnaces to prevent SO2, NOx from entering the air.

Remove NOX from exhaust gases of vehicles etc.
The effects of acid rain can be reduced by using large quantities of limestone and lime to neutralize acidic lakes or soils.

Total

Acid rain is a result of natural processes that occur due to chemical reactions taking place in the atmosphere. Anthropogenic activities have changed the concentrations of NOx and SO2 in the atmosphere, leading to an increase in global environmental problems.

The damage of acid rain is widespread and is known to cause extensive environmental damage to the aquatic environment, flora and fauna, human health, and buildings, structures made of stone and metal.

The best way to reduce the formation of acid rain is to reduce the emissions of SO2 and NO and this can only be done by burning less fossil fuels and adopting cleaner energy alternatives.

Biodiversity loss

Impact on Biodiversity
Conservation of Biodiversity and
Global Initiative for Biodiversity Conservation

Increasing human and livestock population has resulted in increased demand for fuel, fodder, timber and non-timber forest produce, increasing the pressure on existing natural forests. On the other hand forest land is being used for developmental activities like agriculture, industry, power and irrigation projects, housing and urban development. These developmental activities along with unsustainable human activities in the form of shifting cultivation and over-exploitation of natural resources have led to deforestation, reduction of forest cover and loss of replaceable biological resources. Thus an international approach and environmental audit of all developmental activities is necessary to ensure a balance between sustainable development and conservation of biodiversity for the benefit of mankind.

The existence, survival and progress of humanity depends on the quality of the environment. Today, the fragile environment is facing the threat of destruction on such a scale as never before in the history of mankind. Advances in science and technology created a competitive world, making man the selfish owner of the result of his knowledge. According to Maloney and Ward (1973), environmental crisis is the result of the maladaptive behavior of man, which is the root cause of environmental problems. Humanity’s struggle for a better life and higher standard of living through ruthless exploitation of natural resources thus results in serious environmental problems. Population explosion along with rapid industrialization, urbanization, indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and fossil fuels and construction of barrages and dams has led to reduction in forest cover, pollution, waste accumulation, soil erosion, floods and above all global warming. Has come The effects of all these problems have resulted in a global catastrophe. There is an urgent need to preserve and improve the environment not only for the present but also for the future generations. One would be surprised to know that 99 percent of all the species of plants and animals that once existed on this planet are extinct today. This mass extinction of species can be attributed to the five mass extinctions that occurred since the planet existed. the last o

These mass extinctions – the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction, occurred 65 million years ago, and led to the extinction of the dinosaurs – one of the most amazing species of creatures on the planet. Recently, species extinction has become a much more prominent phenomenon, and this phenomenon is directly related to the increase in human activities.

While a significant number of animal and plant species have already been wiped off the planet, many species are fighting for their survival. According to estimates, a quarter of plant and animal species on the planet have already been pushed to the brink of extinction as a result of human exploitation.

Even though we have come a long way from the rough jungles to the sky

Scraping by in concrete jungles, we can’t really claim to be one step ahead in competition with nature. We have made some serious changes to our natural environment to suit our basic needs, and some of these changes have taken a heavy toll on us. From flash floods to landslides, we’ve got some lessons to learn.

But we seem more comfortable turning a blind eye to them. Those who ask what difference it would make to the extinction of one or two species simply do not understand the importance of biodiversity in an ecosystem. The fact is that all species of flora and fauna, including humans, are dependent on each other, and the extinction of any one of these species can have a domino effect on other species that directly or indirectly depend on it.

For example, the extinction of the apex predator of a particular biome is bound to result in a severe loss of vegetation cover because the number of herbivores will increase due to the lack of predators to inhibit their growth. When we talk about the importance of biodiversity, even those micro-organisms that we cannot see with our naked eyes are essential for the smooth functioning of the ecosystem.

Play an important role in operations. For example, nitrogen, a basic requirement for plant growth, is produced by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil. If these bacterial species became extinct, plants would not have nitrogen to grow, and this would result in the devastation of the agricultural sector. Wildlife encroaches on human habitat due to habitat loss and lack of food, both of which result from human encroachment into their natural habitat.

At the end of the day, biological diversity is undoubtedly one of the most important components of an ecosystem. That being said, the onus is on us to understand the importance of biodiversity conservation and implement wildlife conservation measures to save our ecosystem.

Biodiversity is made up of two words ‘biological’ and diversity. In a literal sense it is the number, variety and variability of all living forms on Earth. These include the millions of plants, animals and microbes, the genes they contain and the complex ecosystems of which they are a part. From the driest deserts to the densest tropical rainforests, and from high snow-capped mountain peaks to the deepest ocean trenches, life occurs in an amazing spectrum of forms, shapes, colors and sizes, each with unique ecological interrelationships.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) defines biodiversity as the variability

Living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part.

level of biodiversity

genetic diversity

It is the original source of biodiversity. The diversity of genes within a species passed down over generations is known as genetic biodiversity. Genes found in organisms can form a large number of combinations each of which gives rise to some variability e.g. There are thousands of wild and cultivated varieties of Oryza sativa (rice) that show variation at the genetic level and differ in their colour, shape, size, aroma and nutrient content of the grain.

species diversity

Species is the unit that is used to classify the millions of life forms on Earth. Each species is different from every other species. Species diversity can be defined as the variability found within a population of a species or between different species of a community.

Horses and donkeys are different species as are lions and tigers. What unites members of a species is that they are genetically identical and can produce fertile offspring. Species diversity is usually measured in terms of the total number of species within a specific area.

It broadly represents the species richness and their abundance in a community. Current estimates place the total number of living species in the range of 10 million to 50 million (Wilson, 1992). So far only about 1.5 million living and 300,000 fossil species have actually been described.

Ecosystem diversity

Ecosystem is a complex of life forms (including plants, animals and micro-organisms) interacting with each other and

With non-living elements like soil, water, air, minerals etc. This diversity of ecological complexity reflects the diversity in ecological niches, trophic structure, food-webs, nutrient cycling, etc. Ecosystem diversity. Ecosystems also show variation with respect to physical parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude, rainfall etc.

Distribution of species in major groups of flora and fauna in India

plant animal

bacteria 850 lower group 9979

Fungi 23,000 Mollusca 5042

Algae 2500 Arthropods 57,525

Bryophytes 2564 Pisces (fishes) 2546

pteridophytes 1022 reptiles 428

gymnosperms 64 birds 1228

Angiosperms 15,000 Amphibians 204

mammals 372

Why is ecosystem diversity important?

The diversity of the ecosystem is of great importance and has to be kept intact. The diversity we see today has developed over millions of years of evolution. Biodiversity is important and necessary to maintain ecological balance. If we destroy this diversity, it will disturb this balance. If diversity is lost in one ecosystem then we cannot replace the diversity of one ecosystem with the diversity of another ie coniferous trees of boreal forests do not function as trees of tropical deciduous forests and vice versa. This is because the diversity of ecosystems has evolved in relation to prevailing environmental conditions with well-regulated ecological balance.

endemism

The species which are confined to a particular region only are called endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic to India. The Western Ghats are the sites of maximum endemism.

India has two biodiversity hot spots and thus a large number of endemic species. Out of about 47,000 species of plants in our country, 7000 are endemic. The Indian subcontinent has about 62% endemic vegetation, mainly confined to the Himalayas, the Khasi Hills and the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are particularly rich in amphibians (frogs, toads).

Aad

b) and reptiles (lizards, crocodiles etc.). About 62% of the amphibians and 50% of the lizards are endemic to the Western Ghats. Monitor lizard (Varanus), reticulated python and various species of Indian salamander and viviparous toad nectophryne are some of the important endemic species of our country.

Biodiversity Hot Spots

Areas that exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are called biodiversity hot spots (Myers, 1977). Globally there were 25 such biodiversity hot spots (now increased to 34) of which two are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats. About 50% of terrestrial biodiversity is found in these hotspots, covering less than 2% of the world’s land area. Each hotspot has at least 0.5% of its plant species as endemic. About 40% of terrestrial plant and 25% of vertebrate species are endemic and occur in these hotspots.

marine diversity

Mangroves, estuaries, coral reefs, backwaters, etc. are rich in biodiversity along the 7500 km long coastline of our country. More than 340 species of corals of the world are found here. Marine diversity is rich in molluscs, crustaceans (crabs etc.), polychaetes and corals. Many species of mangrove plants and sea grasses are also found in our country.

value of biodiversity

Several uses of biodiversity or biodiversity value have been classified by McNeely et al. (1990) as follows:

a) consumable use value
b) productive use value
c) social value
d) moral values
e) aesthetic value
f) option value

g) monetary value
h) Ecosystem Service Value
a) consumable use value

These are those with direct use value where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed directly e.g. Biodiversity is important for agriculture, fuel, food, medicines, fibre, etc. About 80,000 edible plant species have been reported from the wild. About 90 percent of present-day food crops have been grown from wild tropical plants. Fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are also products of fossil biodiversity. About 80% of the world’s population in developing countries relies on traditional medicines derived from plants or plant extracts and some animal and mineral resources for primary health care. The wonder drug penicillin used as an antibiotic is obtained from a fungus called Penicillium. We get tetracycline from bacteria. The malarial drug quinine from the bark of the cinchona tree, digitalin from foxglove (digitalis), an effective treatment for heart ailments, aspirin from the plant Filipendula ulmaria.

b) productive use value

These are commercially usable values where the product is marketed and sold. This can include timber, wild gene resources that can be used by scientists to introduce desirable traits into crops and domesticated animals. These can include animal products such as tusks from elephants, musk from musk deer, silk from silk-worm, wool from sheep, cedar of many.

Animals, lakhs of insects etc., which are traded in the market. Many industries depend on the productive use values of biodiversity, e.g. Paper and pulp industry, plywood industry, railway sleeper industry, silk industry, textile industry, ivory work, leather industry, pearl industry etc.

c) social value

These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of the people. Many plants like Tulsi (Holy Basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Bael, etc are considered holy and sacred in our country. The tribal people are very closely associated with the wild life in the forests. Their social life, songs, dances and rituals are intertwined around wildlife. Many animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock, owl etc. also have an important place in our psycho-spiritual sphere and thus have special social significance. Thus biodiversity has a specific social value, which is associated with different societies.

d) Moral Values (Existential Values)

Every species is important and has a right to exist. Man has no right to exterminate any species. This includes ethical issues such as “all life must be protected”. It is based on the concept of “live and let live”. If we want our human race to survive, we must protect all biodiversity, because biodiversity is valuable. Moral value means that we may or may not use a species, but knowing the fact that this species exists in nature gives us pleasure.

e) aesthetic value

Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity. None of us would want to travel through vast stretches of wasteland with no visible signs of life. People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is now known as eco-tourism. The concept of “willingness to pay” on such eco-tourism also gives us a monetary value for the aesthetic value of biodiversity. Ecotourism is estimated to generate about $12 billion in revenue annually largely given the aesthetic value of biodiversity.

f) option value

These values reflect the potential of biodiversity.

which is currently unknown and needs to be explored. There is a possibility that we may have some potential cure for AIDS or cancer lying within the depths of a marine ecosystem, or a tropical rainforest.

g) Monetary value of biodiversity

Every species on this earth has some value in terms of aesthetics or other ecosystem services they provide, when converted to monetary terms. Examples of these are given below:

A male lion that survives to the age of 7 can earn up to $515,000 due to its aesthetic value paid by tourists, while a lion killed for its skin can fetch a market value of up to $1,000.

A Kenyan elephant can generate $1 million in tourist revenue in its lifetime.
Mountain gorillas in Rwanda are earning $4 million a year through eco-tourism.
Whale watching at Harvey Bay off the coast of Queensland brings in $12 million annually.
Tourism to the Great Barrier Reef in Australia earns $2 billion every year.
A typical tree provides $196,2150 worth of ecological services in the form of oxygen, clean air, fertile soil, erosion control, water recycling, wildlife habitat, toxic gas moderation, etc. Timber.

h) Ecosystem Service Value

Recently, a non-consumptive use value related to ecosystem self-maintenance and various important ecosystem services has been recognized which refers to ecosystem services:

Prevention of soil erosion
flood prevention
Maintenance of soil fertility
cycling of nutrients
Nitrogen fixation
Water Cycle
Their role as a carbon sink
pollutant absorption, and
Reducing the menace of global warming etc.

some endangered animals of india

Reptiles alligator, green sea turtle, tortoise, python

Birds Great Indian Bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian Hornbill, Siberian White Crane

carnivorous Indian wolf, red fox, sloth bear, red panda, tiger, striped, hyena, Indian lion

Mammals Golden Cat, Desert Cat, Dugong

Primates Hoolock Gibbon, Lion-tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Langur, Capped Monkey, Golden Monkey

impact on biodiversity

Population:

The growth of human population is a major factor affecting the environment. Overpopulation means that there are more people than there are resources to meet their needs. Almost all of the environmental problems we face today can be traced back to the increase in world population. The human population is 7 billion; With an annual global growth rate of about 1.14%, three more people are being added to the earth every second.

Prosperity:

The world is experiencing an increase in the annual economic growth rate. Affluence is a problem because with increasing affluence comes an increase in per capita resource use. Less than 20% of the world’s population control 80% of the world’s wealth

105d Resources. Higher standard of living with increase in production and consumption of goods is the main cause of pollution and environmental degradation (EO Wilson, 1994).

There is no single reason for the degradation of natural ecosystems. The effects of overpopulation and overconsumption are felt not only locally or nationally, but also globally.

Pollution generated in one area can affect the air, water, vegetation or animals in another area. The impact of global CO2 changes, biodiversity loss and marine pollution do not respect political boundaries and ultimately affect everyone in the world.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN ACTIVITY AND BIODIVERSITY IMPACTS:

The problem with biological resource extraction occurs when the rate of increase in demand for resources far exceeds the rate of reproduction of the population. Demand for a resource exceeds supply and the price of that resource increases, increasing the incentive to extract them, and the population eventually dies out. Whales, elephants, spotted cats, cod, old-growth forests, ginseng, parrots, tuna and passenger pigeons, to name a few, have suffered misfortune.

The main problem in the extraction of volatile biological resources is the increasing demand for the resource and the short-term profit goals of the extracters.

habitat destruction

Habitat loss or fragmentation refers to disturbance of the physical environment in which a species lives that can range from minor to severe. In other words habitat fragmentation is the loss and subdivision of one habitat and the corresponding increase in other habitats in the landscape. Minor changes, such as mild chemical changes from air pollution, affect only susceptible species. However, extreme physical changes can eliminate many species from the area.

Biologically diverse natural systems and the services they provide are often undervalued in monetary terms and, as a result, are used for development activities that have a far more direct economic impact. Large-scale industrial and developmental projects have contributed to habitat fragmentation and in turn to the loss of substantial biodiversity-rich areas. Habitat conversion is the greatest threat to biodiversity, as almost all human activities

Causes changes in the natural environment to a greater or lesser degree. Habitat fragmentation not only affects species, but also the processes that drive biodiversity. Habitat fragmentation causes large populations to split into smaller populations that may be isolated from each other. These sub-populations may be too small to be viable or, if local extinction of the species occurs, fragmentation cuts off the ability to regenerate as there are no intact populations nearby.

Poor agricultural practices also degrade soil quality and promote the loss of topsoil. In addition, agriculture has resulted in local reduction and extinction of organisms associated with agricultural land (such as grassland and shrubland birds, wild pollinating insects).

over exploitation

After habitat loss, over-harvesting has had the greatest impact on biodiversity. In fact, overharvesting and habitat loss often occur together, as the removal of an organism from its environment can have irreversible effects on the environment itself.

Humans have historically exploited plant and animal species to maximize short-term profit at the expense of species or population stability. Many species such as tigers and elephants are killed or hunted for their skin, teeth, claws, etc., which have high commercial value. This exploitation initially follows a predictable pattern, a species harvested from the wild can generate substantial profits, encouraging more people to become involved in its extraction. This increased competition encourages the development of more large-scale and efficient methods of extraction, which inevitably deplete the resource. Eventually, quota systems are implemented, leading to more competition, loss of income, and the need for government subsidies to support the extractive industry. This sequence of events has been observed in the fishing industry, the logging industry, and the grazing of animals.

Cattle on public lands impacted by rapidly expanding pharmaceutical industry

The consequences for the population resource of medicinal plants are always the same: overpopulation leads to crashes, sometimes ending in global extinction.

5.8.5 Secondary deletion

Secondary deletion occurs when deletion of one group causes deletion of another. This often involves the loss of edible species. The familiar panda bear of China subsists largely on bamboo. As bamboo is destroyed, the panda may become extinct for that reason alone.

introduction of exotic species

The introduction of alien species (also known as non-native, exotic species) to natural habitats, intentionally or accidentally, has been a major problem.

Eat for biodiversity around the world. Sometimes introduced species have higher growth rates, higher competitiveness, and higher reproductive rates, which can result in the extinction of indigenous species.

Hunt

The introduction of a predator, which the organism has not previously been exposed to, can profoundly affect the food chains of the region.

Competition

Exotic species can often compete with native species for food and habitat acquisition, mainly because they have no local controls (disease and predators) to keep their populations in check.

hybridization

Geographical barriers help maintain genetically diverse populations of organisms. The introduction of non-native species, whether intentional or not, results in the inbreeding of native and non-native species resulting in the decline of native species.

diseases and parasites

Insect species accidentally introduced to an area provide one of the most dramatic examples of the damage that exotic species can do to native species. For example, an exotic beetle was the vector for Dutch elm disease, which has devastated elm trees in North America.

homogenization of ecosystems

All of the above effects combine to reduce the number of native species in a habitat and replace them with weeds and thus cause regional homogeneity of ecosystems.

Species introduction can occur accidentally, when organisms “hitchhike” into new systems.

on other animals or objects. Inadvertent introduction of the species can also occur due to lack of education of the general public. For example, releasing aquarium fish or using exotic ornamental garden plants whose seeds survive in natural systems can increase the likelihood of an alien species becoming established in our native ecosystem.

pollution

Contamination involves the addition of materials that are not normally present or are present in very different amounts. Soil, water and air pollution affect ecosystem functioning and can remove or eliminate important sensitive species.

Toxic discharges that include metals, organic chemicals, and suspended sediments are commonly found in industrial and municipal effluents that are released directly into water bodies. Toxic discharges can harm the biota (living organisms) in an ecosystem by killing them, weakening them, or their ability to carry out essential biological functions (feeding, reproduction, etc.).

can influence opinion. Numerous studies have shown that pesticide pollution has a great impact on the populations of specific plant and animal species.

A major concern is the build-up of nutrients in the form of phosphorus and nitrogen, which often originate in runoff water from the use of fertilizers in agricultural fields. These nutrients, naturally present in very small amounts, encourage the rapid growth of algae and aquatic plants, ultimately limiting the amount of oxygen and light available to other organisms in the ecosystem.

global climate change

Many investigations predict global climate change in the coming times. Human-caused increases in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are expected to increase global temperatures by 1 degree to 3 degrees Celsius over the next century. It is believed that a 1 degree increase in global temperature would shift the tolerance range of land species about 125 km towards the poles, or 150 m vertically over mountains. These sudden changes may be beyond the tolerance limits of many species and it is likely that we may lose them forever. In addition, sea level rise associated with global warming will submerge low-lying coastal areas, threatening coastal flora and fauna.

globalization

The global movement of goods has increased over the past few decades due to the proliferation of international trade treaties. While globalization itself is not directly harmful to the environment, some aspects of increased transportation, especially sea shipping

Traffic has put pressure on natural systems by facilitating the migration of species

new habitats, introducing pollutants into aquatic ecosystems, and altering and destroying coastal habitats.

One of the biggest effects of globalization has been the introduction of foreign species into native habitats. This has occurred most frequently through the release of ballast water from ships. Ships carry water in their ballast from their point of origin for stabilization as they cross the oceans and discard it when they arrive at their port of destination. This ballast water may contain many plants and animals that are native to other areas of the world. An increase in shipping traffic also means an increased potential for accidental spills of substances that pose a risk to aquatic wildlife, such as crude oil and an increasing amount of fuel to aquatic ecosystems.

biodiversity conservation

Biodiversity can be protected in two ways-

In-situ
Ex-situ

1.) In situ conservation (within the habitat)

this is the way to protect

by protection. About,

4.83 per cent of the country’s total geographical area has been earmarked for comprehensive conservation of habitats and ecosystems through a protected area network of 99 national parks and 523 wildlife sanctuaries. The results of this network have been instrumental in restoring viable populations of large mammals such as tigers, lions, rhinos, crocodiles and elephants. Biosphere reserve program is being implemented for the protection of representative ecosystems. In total, 15 biodiversity-rich areas of the country have been designated as Biosphere Reserves. Programs have also been initiated for scientific management and wise use of fragile ecosystems. Specific programs are being implemented for the management and conservation of wetlands, mangrove and coral reef systems.

2) Ex-situ protection (outside the residence)

This method of conservation includes setting up of gene banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections, etc. Ex-situ conservation measures have also been addressed as they are complementary to the in-situ conservation measures and are otherwise important. There are around 70 botanic gardens including 33 university botanic gardens. In addition, there are 275 centers of ex-situ wildlife conservation in the form of zoos, deer parks.

Safari Park, Aquarium etc. A Central Zoo Authority supports, oversees, monitors and

Coordinates the development and management of zoos in the country.

Global Initiative:

Five international conventions focus on biodiversity issues such as conservation:

Convention on Biological Diversity,
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species,
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and
World Heritage Convention.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed by the Community and all Member States at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. There has been a substantial loss of biological diversity over several decades. Worldwide and in Europe due to human activities (pollution, deforestation, etc.). The convention focuses not only on conservation of biodiversity but also on sustainable use of biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of its use.

The Convention provides for the following:

To establish and maintain programs for scientific and technical education and training for the identification, conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and its components and to coordinate such education and training for the specific needs of developing countries;

providing income;

Promotion of research contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, particularly in developing countries;
To promote the use of scientific advances in biological diversity research in developing methods for the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources.

Public education should be promoted and awareness raised to highlight the importance of biological diversity through the media and to include these topics in educational programs.

The Convention emphasizes the role of indigenous and local communities in conservation

Biodiversity. These populations depend heavily and traditionally on the biological resources on which their traditions are based.

convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (also known as CMS or Bonn Convention) aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. It is an intergovernmental treaty, concluded under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme, concerned with the conservation of wildlife and habitats on a global scale. Since the entry into force of the Convention, its membership has grown rapidly to include over 100 Parties from Africa, Central and South America, Asia, Europe and Oceania. The Convention was signed in Bonn (hence the name) in 1979 and entered into force in 1983.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES):

This convention is an international treaty designed to protect wild plants and animals affected by international trade. The treaty has been in force since 1975 and regulates the export, import and re-export of endangered and threatened wildlife. The convention currently provides varying degrees of protection to over 30,000 species of animals and plants that are being traded as live specimens, for fur coats, or even as dried herbs. .

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands:

This convention was signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971, and came into force in December 1975. It provides a framework for international cooperation.

To conserve wetland habitats that have been designated on the List of Wetlands of International Importance. Originally the main focus of this convention on the conservation of wetland habitats, it now covers all aspects of the conservation and judicious use of wetlands. India became a signatory to this convention in 1982. There are sites that have been designated as Ramsar sites.

World Heritage Convention:

The convention is also dedicated to the protection of world culture and heritage, which aims to protect sites of such outstanding value that their conservation is a matter of concern for all people. This treaty was adopted in Paris in 1972 and came into force in 1075. There are a total of 23 designated World Heritage Sites in India, of which five are natural sites. These are Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan), Manas National Park (Assam), Kaziranga National Park (Assam), Sundarbans (West Bengal) and Nanda Devi National Park (Uttarakhand).

Ozone layer depletion

Ozone layer and its depletion
Chemicals involved in the production and depletion of ozone
Main Effects of Ozone Depletion
Mitigation measures to reduce ozone depletion.

produced naturally in the stratosphere (extending from about 6 to 30 miles above the Earth’s surface),

Stratospheric ozone is a layer in the Earth’s atmosphere that acts as a natural shield protecting life on Earth. This ozone absorbs between 97 and 99% of the Sun’s harmful ultra-violet (UV) rays and thus protects life on Earth. However, this “good” ozone is slowly being depleted by chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS), including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), halons, methyl bromide, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform. These man-made chemicals are ultimately responsible for more cases of skin cancer, cataracts and other health problems.

Ozone is a naturally occurring gas found in very small amounts in the Earth’s atmosphere. Ozone is a special gas that is present both in the upper atmosphere and at ground level of the Earth. There are two different types of ozone; Ground-level ozone is present in the troposphere and stratospheric ozone.

Ground-level ozone (GOL) is located in the troposphere, close to the Earth’s surface. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, which extends up to an altitude of about 10 – 17 km above the ground. The temperature in the troposphere decreases with height. That is, as you go up in altitude, the temperature decreases. The troposphere is a region of intense vertical mixing in addition to horizontal winds. Ozone is the main component of urban smog that originates in emissions from industrial activities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents. Ground level ozone is formed by chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone is a harmful pollutant to humans. Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems, including chest pain, cough, throat irritation, and congestion.

Or it can worsen bronchitis, emphysema and asthma. Another aspect of GLO is its harmful effect on the ecosystem as it can damage crops, trees and other vegetation.

stratospheric ozone

Ozone is mainly present in the stratosphere. The stratosphere is the layer above the troposphere. It extends from the troposphere up to an altitude of about 45 – 55 km. Different

In the troposphere, the stratosphere, the temperature increases with height. The stratosphere is a region of high horizontal winds, but no vertical mixing, so it is “stratified” or layered horizontally.

Ozone also plays a very important role in protecting organisms on the Earth’s surface by blocking 95% of harmful ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation from reaching the Earth’s surface. Changes in stratospheric ozone levels can thus affect human and ecosystem health as well as the chemistry of the troposphere. From the above discussion we can see that ozone protects us from UV light and it is a greenhouse gas in itself.

stratospheric ozone abundance

Ozone is in a layer centered on the arrow

and reaches a peak abundance of about 10 parts per million, at an altitude of 30 km. Even at the peak of the ozone layer, however, it still has a lot of trace components.

6.3 Ozone production

Ozone is a deep blue, explosive and toxic gas. It is formed in the atmosphere by the action of sunlight on molecular oxygen. In the stratosphere, UV light is available which can split ordinary molecular oxygen into two atomic oxygen atoms.

O2 + UV photon –> O + O

Now, atomic oxygen is a very reactive species. It immediately connects with something else. In the stratosphere, atomic oxygen can rapidly combine with molecular oxygen (in the presence of a third body) to produce ozone or O3.

O + O2 + 3rd body –> O3 + 3rd body

Molecular oxygen is converted into ozone by a combination of the above two reactions in the presence of sunlight. In this way, ozone is continuously being formed in the stratosphere.

ozone depletion

The role of ozone in protecting mankind from the harmful effects of ultra violet radiations is well understood. Measurements by scientists show that there is a seasonal decrease or thinning of ozone concentrations in the stratosphere over Antarctica and the Arctic. Ozone depletion in the stratosphere is a serious concern

There is a long-term threat to humans, animals and the sunlight-driven primary producers (mostly plants) that support Earth’s food chains and food webs.

Ozone is lost through the following pair of reactions:

O3 + UV photon –> O2 + O

O + O3 –> 2O2

Of these two reactions, the first reaction serves to regenerate atomic oxygen for the second reaction which converts ozone back to molecular oxygen. This second reaction is very slow. However, it can be greatly accelerated by catalytic reactions (see below). In the absence of such catalytic reactions, ozone can survive in the stratosphere for 1–10 years.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) / Ozone Depletion Theory

CFCs are building up in the troposphere and slowly moving into the stratosphere

Chlorine is released by the breakdown of CFCs by sunlight in the stratosphere

Chlorine converts ozone to molecular oxygen

Depletion of ozone will lead to an increase in ultraviolet radiation (“UV-B”).

 Increased UV-B can lead to: o Increase in skin cancer

o Cataract

o damage to the immune system

o Potential crop and marine life damage

Catalytic destruction of ozone by chlorine from CFCs

Catalysis refers to the acceleration of a particular chemical reaction by a catalyst, a substance that is not destroyed in the reaction, enabling it to carry out the same accelerated effect over and over again.

The rapid catalytic destruction of ozone is best explained in terms of the well-known example of CFCs (also known as freons) in the stratosphere. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were

Developed to be colorless, odorless, non-staining, chemically inert, non-toxic, non-flammable, and a few other properties that make them excellent refrigerants, solvents, propellants for aerosol cans, and foam-blowing agents . These same properties make them essentially inactive in the troposphere.

In the stratosphere, however, CFCs can be broken down into more reactive fragments under the action of UV light. When this breakdown occurs, free chlorine is released which can catalytically destroy ozone. The process takes place in two stages:

Step 1. “Photolysis” (fragmentation by sunlight) of CFCs in the stratosphere Cl2CF2 + UV light –> ClCF2 + Cl

Step 2. Catalytic destruction of ozone

Cl + O3 –> ClO + O2 ClO + O3 –> Cl + 2O2

Note that the net effect of this pair of fast reactions is to convert two ozone molecules into three normal oxygen molecules. In the second reaction (the catalyst) atomic chlorine is recovered, making it available to start. In fact, each chlorine atom can destroy hundreds of thousands of ozone molecules.

These two steps turn a very inert chemical into a devastatingly effective destroyer of ozone. whenever the stratosphere

As free chlorine atoms are present in L, ozone is quickly depleted. Other species (such as bromine and fluorine) can also act as ozone-destroying catalysts.

In looking at this chemical it is useful to consider the typical life history of CFCs in the environment:

The spray starch aerosol can is emptied
CFCs expand rapidly until they are evenly distributed throughout the troposphere. It takes about a year to mix in the Southern Hemisphere, depending on weather patterns.
After a few years, some of the CFCs leak into the stratosphere. At sufficient altitude (~30 km), available UV light can photolyze CFCs, releasing chlorine.
Each atom of chlorine participates in the catalytic destruction of thousands

Ozone molecule.

Eventually the chlorine atom reacts with the methane to form a molecule of HCl, hydrochloric acid.
Some of the HCl reacts with OH again to release Cl, but a small fraction of it enters the troposphere where it can dissolve in rainwater and may be released into the atmosphere via precipitation. lost.
The time scale of this process is ~100 years!

Antarctic ozone hole

The famous Antarctic ozone hole was discovered by British scientists who systematically observed ozone using a simple ground-based instrument – the Dobson meter. He published this famous figure which describes the total ozone depletion over Halley Bay, Antarctica in the month of October (Australian Spring). Farman et al. These measurements provided a wake-up call to the atmospheric science community. They were quickly verified by satellite observations and several expeditions were organized to find out what was happening in the region and during this particular time of year.

Farman et al. Paper published in 1985 showed a dramatic decrease in ozone. The year-on-year decline has more or less continued to this day.

The Antarctic ozone hole is now well understood and can be summarized as follows:

The Antarctic ozone hole is confined in space and time to the time of year when the Sun first appears above the horizon after the long polar night. During the polar winter, a polar vortex forms and the polar air mass separates from other air masses in the stratosphere. The temperature continues to drop and drop, eventually causing the stratospheric air trapped in the vortex to become very cold—in fact the coldest air found in any part of Earth’s stratosphere. In this cold vortex, polar stratospheric ice crystal clouds form. The gas phase HCl dissolves in the surfaces or sticks to the surfaces of the clouds. The CFC reacts with HCl ice, converting the relatively unreactive chlorine into the more active species, Cl2, ClONO2, and HOCl. At sunrise, in October, chlorine-containing compounds are

Photolysis, releasing highly reactive Cl atoms that attack ozone. ozone density falls

rapidly, only to recover when the polar vortex breaks up, mixing and releasing the warm air

Ozone-free air to move away from the polar region. Ozone loss is felt globally.

northern hemisphere ozone

The northern hemisphere is not immune to ozone holes. In the north, the stratospheric polar vortex is not as well formed as in the south. This is due to the large difference between land and water in the northern hemisphere. The existence of the land mass breaks the symmetry of the polar vortex in the north. However, the same processes operate to the south and satellite data show the effect occurring in March (the time of spring in the Northern Hemisphere).

Sooner or later, we will see colder than normal northern polar stratospheric temperatures in early spring and heavily populated areas will be warned of abnormally low ozone levels. Since ozone depleting compounds will remain in the atmosphere for many tens of years, we have to live with these effects. Eventually the chlorine compounds will clear themselves from the stratosphere and Earth’s ozone shield will return to normal – for the sake of our grandchildren’s children.

Potential Effects of Depleting Ozone

The primary concern is the increased levels of UV radiation reaching the Earth’s surface due to depletion of stratospheric ozone. The UV spectrum can be broken down into two parts:

UV-A: 400 – 320 nm

UV-B: 320 – 290 nm

The more energetic UV-B part of the spectrum is responsible for sunburns, cataracts, potential ecological damage, and skin cancer. It can be absorbed by glasses as well as by sunscreen and hats.

Relatively little is known or understood about the consequences of increased UV-B levels. However, we do know that a 1% decrease in ozone abundance causes an increase in UV-B of about 2%. Increased UV-B exposure to the Earth’s surface could affect humans, agricultural and forest development, marine ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles and materials. Table 1 summarizes some of the potential effects of increasing UV-B.

Knowledge drives a situation of potentially global impact

plant life short height
aquatic life low high
skin cancer moderate to high
immune system low high
Cataract Moderate Low
Climate Impact* Moderate Moderate
tropospheric ozone medium low

human

health effects

Our best understanding of the potential effects is in the area of skin cancer, for which detailed epidemiological records and studies exist. For example, it is known that more than 90% of non-melanoma skin cancers are related to UV-B exposure. A 2% increase in UV-B is associated with a 2–5% increase in basal-cell cancer cases and a 4–10% increase in squamous-cell cancer cases.

In 1990, there were ~500,000 cases of basal-cell cancer and ~100,000 cases of squamous-cell cancer in the US. A 1% reduction in ozone would increase skin cancer cases by ~20,000 per year. To put this worrying statistic into context, it is necessary to briefly discuss the geographic spread of skin cancer.

effects on plants

UV-B radiation affects plant physiological and developmental p.

Can affect processes and plant growth. Indirect changes, such as the way nutrients are delivered within the plan, the timing of developmental stages and secondary metabolism and plant form, may be as important as or more important than the direct harmful effects of UVB.

impact on marine ecosystems

Phytoplankton are the foundation of aquatic food webs, and their productivity is limited to the upper layer of the water column that has enough sunlight to support the web.

Productivity. Exposure to solar UVB radiation affects phytoplankton orientation mechanisms and dynamics and reduces survival rates for these organisms. UVB radiation has also been found to damage the early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and other animals.

Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles

An increase in solar UV radiation may affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles, which may affect sources and sinks of greenhouse gases and many other trace gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulfide (COS) and possibly ozone. Such changes would contribute to interactions between the atmosphere and the biosphere that either attenuate or strengthen the atmospheric build-up of these gases.

impact on content

Although many materials are now protected to some degree from UVB by special additives, synthetic polymers, naturally occurring biopolymers and other materials of commercial interest are adversely affected by solar UV radiation. An increase in solar UVB levels will therefore accelerate their breakdown and limit their useful life.

Concluding in 1985, a series of ground-based and airborne measurement campaigns were conducted to develop an understanding of the chemistry and dynamics associated with the Antarctic ozone hole. This understanding lead to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in October 1987. This required a cap on annual use of CFCs beginning in the 1990s, with a 50% reduction by the year 2000. In 1990, the protocol was amended to take into account the severe damage during the Montreal ozone hole events and the global ozone decline trends. Participating countries substantially strengthened the protocol, called for an accelerated reduction in emissions, and required a complete phase-out of CFCs and other major ozone-depleting substances by 2000. The Montreal Protocol was revised in 1992 to fully phase out CFCs, etc., by 1996.

India is concerned about the ozone problem and signed the Montreal Protocol in 1992. Strict measures have been initiated to eliminate ozone depleting substances in the country. These measures include ban on trade of ozone depleting substances (ODS), licensing

Import and export of ODS and restrictions on new ODS production facilities. The Ozone Cell in the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, is the Indian national lead agency coordinating all matters relating to the Montreal Protocol.

Understanding of the new ecological paradigm

Functions of Environment
Contribution of Cotton and Dunlop

As Schneeberg himself acknowledged, the production treadmill has not achieved the paradigmatic status within environmental sociology that he would have liked.

There are several possible reasons for this. First, political economy, especially with a neo-Marxist tinge, has been overshadowed to some extent in recent decades by other theoretical flavours, notably postmodernism and cultural sociology. Second, the treadmill theory has been somewhat static, a neoliberal era for a manufacturing economy in which Western economics seems to have shifted toward new information technology, financial services, and entertainment. Another reason may be that the notion of a treadmill is no longer very new or, despite Schneeberg’s belief, very controversial. To actually turn off the treadmill would be radical enough, of course, but as an analysis of industrial and consumer societies the model seems rather clear.

In accounting for the causes of large-scale environmental destruction, two primary approaches stand out: the ecological explanation as embodied in Catton and Dunlap’s model of ‘competitive environmental actions’, and the political economy as the explanation.

Found in Alan Schneeberg’s concepts of the ‘social-environmental dialectic’ and the ‘treadmill of production’. As noted by Butel (1987: 471), both the approaches focus on social structure and social

Evolution is seen as being reciprocally related to the bio-physical environment but the nature of this relationship is depicted very differently.

ecological interpretation

The ecological explanation for environmental destruction has its roots in the field of ‘human ecology’ which was dominant within urban sociology from the 1920s to the 1960s.

This urban ecology model was introduced by sociologist Robert Park and his colleagues during the 1920s and 1930s.

university. Park was well acquainted with the work of Darwin and his fellow naturalists, based on their insights into the interconnectedness and interdependence of plant and animal species. In his discussion of human ecology, Parks (1936 [1952]) begins with an explanation of the ‘webs of life’, citing the familiar nursery rhyme, The House That Jack Built, as the logical prototype of long food chains, Each link that is dependent on the other. Within the web of life, the active principle is the ‘struggle for existence’ in which the survivors find their ‘niche’ in the physical environment and in the division of labor between different species.

Had Park been primarily interested in the natural environment for its own sake, he would have realized that human interference in the form of urban development and industrial pollution had artificially broken this chain, upsetting the ‘biological balance’. Indeed, he acknowledged that commerce, ‘increasingly destroying the isolation on which the ancient order of nature rested’, intensified the struggle for existence over an ever-expanding area of the habitable world. But he believed that such changes have the potential to give a new and often better direction to the future course of events, forcing adaptation, change and a new equilibrium.

Biological ecology was the primary source from which Park borrowed a range of principles, which he applied to human populations and communities. However, in doing so, he noted that human ecology differs from plant and animal ecology in several important respects. First, being free from the division of labour, humans are not immediately dependent on the physical environment. Second, technology has allowed humans

To recreate your habitat and your world rather than be constrained by it. Third, the structure of human communities is much more than simply the product of biologically determined factors; It is governed by cultural factors, especially an institutional structure rooted in custom and tradition. Human society, then, unlike the rest of nature, is organized on two levels: biological and cultural.

new ecological paradigm

This picture of the nature-society relationship clearly violates several tenets of Catton and Dunlap’s new ecological paradigm. It emphasizes the exceptional characteristics (inventiveness, technical ability) of humans rather than their commonality with other species. It prioritizes the influence of social and cultural factors (communication, division of labor) rather than bio-physical, environmental determinants. Finally, it mitigates this by celebrating the human ability to overcome the constraints imposed by nature.

Park, his colleagues and students (notably Mackenzie and Burgess) applied their principles of human ecology to the processes that create and reinforce urban spatial systems. He saw the city as the product of three such processes: (1) concentration and disinflation; (2) ecological specialization; and (3) invasion and succession. The building blocks of the city were called ‘natural areas’ (slums, ghettos, bohemia), “natural group dwellings” that corresponded to these ecological processes. The city was characterized as a regionally based ecological system. in which a constant Darwinian struggle over land use produced a constant flux and redistribution of urban populations. Nowhere was this more apparent than in the ‘transition zone’, an area adjacent to the central business district that became a prestigious residential district. An area characterized by low rent tenants, deviant activities and marginal businesses.

Much of the early criticism of human ecology was based not on its failure to explore the interdependence between the human environment and the natural environment, but on its failure to adequately account for the role of human values in habitat choice and movement. In the late 1940s, a socio-cultural critique of mainstream human ecology briefly illuminated the landscape of American sociology. Fairey (1947) used the example of land use in central Boston to demonstrate that symbolism and emotion were equally, if not more, important than standard ecological principles.

City size. Similarly, Jonassen (1949) presented the history of settlement and resettlement of Norwegian immigrants in the New York City area as evidence that ethnic groups consciously choose a specific type of residential environment based on the values that they share with them. bring with them as a kind of cultural baggage. (In this case, the ideal included the sea, a port, and mountains). Jonassen’s research is part of a body of research on the origins of environmental perceptions.

(see for example Lynch’s (1993) article on the making of nature in Latin America) but the main thrust of his argument was to denigrate economic deterrence.

The minimalism that characterized the conservative ecology of the time.

While cultural ecology, by itself, has never been dominant, it has forced more traditional human ecologists to take greater account of social, organizational and cultural variables. This O.D. was evident in Duncan’s 1961 POET model (Population-Organization-Environment Technology), which was depicted as an ‘ecological complex’ in which: (1) each element is interconnected with the other three, and (2) One can change. So they influence each other. The POET model was a pioneer in providing insight into the complex nature of ecological constraints, even though it failed to give sufficient importance to environmental constraints. For example, in a causal sequence suggested by Dunlap (1993: 722-3), an increase in population (P) can create pressures for technological change (T) as well as increased urbanization (0), leading to more construction may take place. pollution (e). Although it was still rooted in orthodox human ecology, Duncan’s POET model with its use of the human ecological complex at times ‘came close to an embryonic form of environmental sociology’ (Buttle and Humphrey 2002).

In all this, an important issue is whether the notion of an ‘ecosystem’ should be accepted at face value or merely treated as an analogy. It seems that Park and the Chicago School had the latter in mind, adopting the conceptual language of biological ecology as it was the scientific flavor of the day (see Chapter 3). However, other social scientists took the ecological metaphor more literally. For example, the noted economist Kenneth Boulding (1950: 6) claimed that he was using the concept of ecosystem in its proper sense, and not merely as [an analogy]. Society, he wrote, was ‘something like a great pond’ filled with ‘innumerable species’ of social life, organizations, homes, businesses and objects of all kinds’ (1950: 6).

competitive work environment

The ecological basis of environmental destruction is perhaps best described by Caton and Dunlap in their ‘Three Competing Tasks of the Environment’ (see Figure 1). This scheme is much less widely disseminated than his theory of the ‘dominant social paradigm’, even though it is more conceptually interesting than I think.

Catton and Dunlap’s model specifies three general functions that the environment serves for humans: supply depot, living space, and waste repository. Used as a supply depot, the environment is a source of renewable and non-renewable natural resources (air, water, forests, fossil fuels) that are essential for life. Overuse of these resources results in

lack or lack The living space or habitat provides housing, transportation systems, and other essentials of daily life. Overuse of this function results in overcrowding, overcrowding, and destruction of other species’ habitats. Along with a waste storage function, the environment serves as a ‘sink’ for waste (garbage), sewage, industrial pollution and other products. Toxic wastes and ecosystem disruption lead to health problems by exceeding the capacity of the ecosystem to absorb the wastes.

Furthermore, each of these functions competes for space, often superimposing on the others, for example placing a garbage landfill in a rural location near a city makes both that site unsuitable as a place to live and land. destroys its ability to function. Supply depot for food. Similarly, urban sprawl reduces the amount of arable land that can be put into production while intensive harvesting threatens the habitat of indigenous peoples.

In recent years, the overlap and hence the conflict between these three competing functions of the environment has increased considerably. New problems such as global warming are said to arise from competition between all three functions at once. Furthermore, conflicts between functions at the level of regional ecosystems now have implications for the global environment.

The competing works of Caton and Dunlap’s environmental model have several very attractive features. First and foremost, it moves human ecology from a specialized concern with living space—the central focus of urban ecology—to environmentally relevant functions of supply and waste disposal. Furthermore, there is a time dimension involved: the absolute size of these works and the area of overlap are said to have increased since the year 1900.

At the same time, there are problems with the model as well. As is the case with the urban ecology of the park and the Chicago School, there is no evidence of human hands here. It says nothing about the social functions involved in these operations and how they are implicated in the overuse and misuse of environmental resources. Above all, there is no provision for changing values or power relations.

That former is particularly puzzling, as one would have thought that Caton and Dunlap had tried to link their ecological model to the new human ecology.

As emphasized in the HEP/NEP contrast. Finally, the longitudinal characteristics of the Catton–Dunlap model can be compared to Bex’s (1992) depiction of the transition from an industrial to an industrial risk society. Both models recognize some common features: increasing globalization of environmental threats, increasing prominence of output- or waste-related elements as opposed to input- or production-related elements. However, Beck’s model is ultimately more exciting because it centralizes the process of social definition. Beck’s (1992: 24-) criticism of environmental risk assessment, ie ‘it runs the risk of degenerating into a discussion of nature without people, without asking about matters of social and cultural importance’, equally Catton and Dunlap applies for. Competitive work of the environment.

The ‘social-environmental dialectic’ and the ‘formula of production’

Within environmental sociology, perhaps the most intuitive explanation of the relationship between capitalism, the state, and the environment can be found in Alan Schneeberg’s book, The Environment: From Surplus to Scarcity (1980). drawing on strands

In both Marxist political economy and neo-Weberian sociology, Schnaiberg outlines the nature and origins of the paradoxical relationship between economic expansion and environmental disruption.

Schnaiberg depicts the political economy of environmental problems and policies as being organized within the structure of modern industrial society, which he names the Treadmill of Production. It refers to an economic system’s inherent need to continually generate profit by creating consumer demand for new products, even where this means expanding the ecosystem to the point where it is beyond the physical limits of development or its’ carrying capacity’. , A particularly important tool in meeting this demand is advertising, which persuades people to buy new products for reasons of lifestyle improvement as well as for practical considerations.

Sahniberg characterizes the production treadmill as a complex self-reinforcing mechanism whereby politicians respond to the environmental degradation created by capital-intensive economic growth by pursuing policies that encourage it. For example, resource depletion is not handled by reducing consumption or adopting a more modest lifestyle, but by opening up new areas for exploitation.

Schnaiberg traces a dialectical tension that arises as a result of the relationship between the treadmill of production and the demands of environmental protection in advanced industrial societies. He describes it as a conflict between ‘use values’; For example, the ‘value of preserving existing unique species of plants and animals,’ and the ‘exchange value’ that characterizes the industrial use of natural resources. As environmental protection has emerged as an important item on the policy agenda of governments, the state must increasingly balance its role as a facilitator of capital accumulation and economic growth and its role as an environmental regulator and champion.

From time to time, the state finds it necessary to engage in limited amounts of environmental intervention to prevent it from exploiting natural resources with abandon and to increase its legitimacy with the public. For example, in the Progressive era of American politics in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the US government responded to uncontrolled logging, mining, and hunting on wilderness lands by expanding its jurisdiction over the environment. Particularly under the chairmanship of Theodore (“Teddy”) Roosevelt, it created national forests, parks, and wildlife sanctuaries, setting boundaries and rules for them.

Restricting the use of public lands and hunting of endangered species. However, it did so out of a desire to increase industrial efficiency (Hayes 1959), regulate competition, and ensure a stable supply of resources (Modai 1991) as much as out of any sense of moral outrage. Similarly, the sudden emergence of toxic waste as a major media issue in the early 1980s spurred Congressional efforts in the United States to pass a new ‘Superfund’ law, giving the government statutory authority and fiscal control. Will give the mechanism to carry out the clean-up operation, having first to identify the legally responsible parties. It was, Szasz (1994: 65) notes, not only a case of lawmakers addressing a newly recognized social need, but instead ‘one of those quintessential “time to make a new law” moments that characteristic of the American legislative process. Nevertheless, most governments are wary of the risk of slowing the drive towards economic expansion or running down the treadmill of production (Noveck and Kampen 1992). caught in a paradoxical situation

As both promoters of economic growth and environmental regulators, governments often engage in a process of ‘environmental managerialism’ (Radclift 1986), in which they attempt to legislate a limited degree of protection sufficient to deflect criticism But not significant enough to derail the engine. of development. By implementing environmental policies and procedures that are complex,

obscure and open to exploitation by the forces of capital production and accumulation (Modavi 1991: 270) The state reaffirms its commitment to strategies to promote economic development.

Other more hardline left-wing critiques have been even more merciless in linking the dynamics of capitalist development to increased environmental destruction. David Harvey (1974), a Marxist geographer, accuses the capitalist supremo of intentionally creating a scarcity of resources in order to keep prices high. Faber and 0′ Connor (1993) allege that capital restructuring in the 1980s and 1990s, including geographic relocation, plant closures, and downsizing, aimed to increase the exploitation of both workers and nature; For example, by reducing spending on pollution control equipment. Cable and Cable refuse to rule out the possibility of an uprising in the United States if the complaints of grassroots environmental groups continue to be ignored by capitalist economic institutions (1995: 121). Schneeberg himself (2002: 33) complains that the central theories of the treadmill have not made their way into the environmental sociological literature in any significant way because they are too ‘radical’. That is, if the treadmill was indeed working as he describes, it could only be replaced by a major and

Continued political mobilization, something that would be fiercely opposed by politicians, government agencies, and corporate America.

Next, ‘The Treadmill of Production Group’2 addresses the application of the production treadmill in a Third World context. Ignoring the negative environmental effects of treadmills in less developed regions, leaders in the South, along with the governments and corporations of the North, have sought to reproduce industrialization according to the First World experience. The primary mechanism for achieving this is the transfer of modern Western industrial techniques from north to south (Schnaberg and Gould 1994: 167). However, as noted by Radclift (1984) et al., this transplant has been largely unsuccessful economically and environmentally. Dependence on global markets has made economic development a risky undertaking for many Third World countries, particularly where these markets can easily be destroyed by the appearance of new, lower-cost alternatives elsewhere in the world. Is. Furthermore, the development plans require expensive infrastructure of roads, hydroelectric dams, airports, etc., which must be paid for by borrowing heavily from northern financial institutions. Such projects often fail to produce the expected level of economic development, while at the same time causing massive ecological damage in the form of flooding, rainforest destruction, soil erosion and pollution.

The treadmill of production explanation has the advantage of locating current environmental problems in the disparities of human-made political and economic systems, rather than in the abstract conflict of actions favored by human ecologists. This brings it closer to the orbit of mainstream sociological theory than the more idiosyncratic approach propounded by Catton and Dunlap. At the same time, as Buttle (2004: 323) observes, the concept of treadmills is unique because it is based on sociological reasoning, but at the same time, features a significant or final dependent variable – environmental destruction that is bio-physical. . [n Buttle’s judgment, this makes it ‘the single most important sociological concept and theory to emerge within American environmental sociology’.

Ecological modernization theory

As Eckersley (2004: 74) warns, ecological modernization may be able to promote green development through technological innovation, but it ultimately risks being exposed as an ‘ideology free zone’. The more severe ecological problems persist, the more likely this is to happen.

By ecological modernization, there is an ecological switch of the industrialization process in a direction that takes into account the maintenance of the existing subsistence base (1992: 334). Cast in the spirit of the Brundtland Report, ecological modernisation, like sustainable development, ‘points to the possibility of overcoming the environmental crisis without abandoning the path of modernisation’. The model is based on the work of the German author, Huber (1982; 1985), who analyzes ecological modernization as a historical phase of modern society. In Huber’s scheme, an industrial society develops through three stages: (I) industrial success; (2) the construction of an industrial society; and (3) the ecological switchover of the industrial system through the process of ‘over-industrialisation’. What?

What makes this latter stage possible is a new technology: the invention and dissemination of microchip technology.

Ecological modernization rejects the ‘small is beautiful’ ideology inspired by Schumacher (1974), in favor of a large-scale restructuring of production-consumption cycles, which has to be facilitated by new, sophisticated, cleaner technologies (Spargren and Moll 1992a: 340). To be accomplished through use. In contrast to sustainable development, no effort has been made to address the problems of the less developed third world countries. Rather, the theory focuses on the economies of Western European countries, which are known to be developing microelectronics, gene processing, and technology.

chemical and manufacturing industries for older, ‘end-of-pipe’ technologies through replacement of technology and other ‘cleaner’ production processes.

In contrast to Schnaiberg’s ‘treadmill of production’ perspective, capitalist relations of production, acting as a treadmill in the ongoing process of economic development, are considered largely irrelevant (Spargren and Moll 1992: 340 1). .

According to Udo Simonis (1989), a German environmental policy analyst, the ecological modernization of industrial society consists of three main strategic elements: a far-reaching transformation of the economy in harmony with ecological principles, environmental policy towards a ‘prevention principle’ Reconfiguration of. (seeking a better balance between preventing pollution before it occurs and cleaning it up afterwards) and an ecological reorientation of environmental policy, particularly the statistical likelihood of ‘proving-beyond-doubt’ in legal suits against polluters by substituting Unfortunately, little is said about the social and political obstacles they are likely to face in trying to implement these strategies, especially in countries other than Germany and the Netherlands where the environment is a major priority.

Ecological modernization

The ideologues of ecological modernization are to be commended for attempting to stake a reasoned position between ‘catastrophic’ environmentalists who preach that there is something to save the earth from an ecological Armageddon and capital apologists. No less will those who prefer a business-as-usual approach. (Sutton 2004: 146). Alas, the approach to ecological modernization is imbued with an unmistakable sense of technological optimism. 3 All that is needed, they suggest, is to move rapidly from the polluting industrial society of the past to the new super-I.

future industrial age. Still, the silicon chip

The revolution, which is the basis of this super-industrialization, is by no means as environmentally neutral as the theory of ecological modernization suggests (see Mahon 1985). Furthermore, it is worth remembering that nuclear power was also promoted as a ‘clean’ technology until its more undesirable characteristics were discovered.

As a sociological explanation, ecological modernization theory is as prescriptive as it is analytical. For example, Spargren and Moll initially had little to say about the power relations that characterize environmental processes, believing that somehow good feeling should automatically win out. Nevertheless, as Gold Al Al. (1993: 231) have argued, sustainability, the guiding concept behind ecological modernisation, has a political economic dimension as an ecological one: that which can be maintained is only acceptable to political and social forces in a particular historical alignment. defines as Its recognition is far more evident in Beck’s concept of a risk-distributive society than in ecological modernization, which Moll and Spargren see as imminent.

More recently, Moll and Spargren have offered a revisionist version of ecological modernization theory. The debate of the early 1980s, he warns, ‘should be understood as an overreaction directed at the dominant schools of thought and environmental debates in environmental sociology in the late 1970s and early 1980s’ (2000: 18-19). In particular, ecological modernization theory, they assert, was originally intended to challenge the notion put forward by both neo-Marxists and counter-productivity thinkers such as Rudolf Bahro and Barry Commoner that the modernization project was on the brink of its death. ; The widespread environmental and ecological degradation of the time was the first evidence of this; and that things can only be saved by recognizing the basic institutions of modern society at their core.

Today, Mol and Spargaren claim, these early debates have become less relevant. Significantly, capitalism itself has developed in a green direction. For example, market-based instruments such as tradable pollution credits have displaced previous strategies that emphasized heavy-handed state regulation and enforcement. In addition, ecological modernization theorists themselves have incorporated critical observations from earlier debates, improving and refining their analysis of social change. For example, they now claim to present a more nuanced position about capitalism, describing it ‘neither as a necessary precondition for a harsh and radical environment, nor as a major obstacle’.

reform’ (2000: 23).

While early debates were often waged alongside neo-Marxists, Mol and Spargren now believe they are forming with them a ‘new theoretical alliance’ (2000: 25) against their common enemies – postmodernists and social constructionists. Political economists and ecological modernists, they argue, converge and agree in their criticism against strong social constructionism and their view that environmental problems have a ‘real’ existence. Both can be considered branches of the modernist project, postmodern answers to environmental problems and solutions.

taking a firm stand against C analyzes (Moll and Spargren 2002: 35).

Mol and Spargren say they are irritated that old positions and criticisms from the 1970s and 1980s keep resurfacing with some regularity. For example, proponents of the new environmental paradigm constantly threaten to go overboard to replace sociology’s earlier disregard for nature with ‘current biology or some form of ecotourism’ (2002: 27). Even more problematic are those postmodern writers, notably Bluhdorn (2000), who portray the ecological crisis as just another ‘grand narrative’ to be dismantled; and ecological rationality as ‘nothing more than power, politics and big money’. The same fierce tension is evident in the views of ‘hard’ or ‘hard’ social constructionists. Even Maarten Heger (1995), in whose case The history of ecological modernization as it unfolds in the politics of acid rain has been widely praised, is clearly regarded as suspect to the extent that it seems is that ‘it seems that he is taking a position that is not too far-fetched. far from where postmodernism would feel comfortable’ (2002: 30). Finally, radical eco-centrists are dismissed because they criticize ecological modernism for advocating a weak form of environmentalism that believes the Earth’s crisis must be solved through behavior, laws, government policies, corporate behavior and May be solved rather than modified by personal lifestyle. fundamental structural changes. Being in the camp of radical ecologists, he warns, ‘about being pessimistic by nature’ (2002: 33).

Despite their apparent reconciliation with the Schneeberg school of political economy, Moll and Spargren still hold their belief

‘Responsible Capitalism’ and the primacy of the market. For example, in his empirical research into the ecological modernization of production in the Dutch chemical industry, Mol was clearly a notorious polluter in the past.

(1997) gets nothing but good news. Responding to consumer pressure, Dutch chemical companies have introduced green measures, from the introduction of new technologies (low organic solvent paint) to new corporate tools such as annual environmental reports, environmental audits and environmental certification systems. Together, he says, this represents ‘a process of radical modernisation’ that led in the 1970s and 1980s to eliminate chemical production or even to shift to ‘soft chemistry’ (such as ‘natural paint’). Any misguided style demands have been reduced to those that have failed. capture more than one percent of the market in European countries). Moll concludes that the institutions of modernity are by no means disappearing; No major movement away from a ‘chemical’ lifestyle can be identified and it can be inferred from Beck’s risk society thesis that faith in the scientific foundations of the chemical industry is more or less absent.

Contributors to the treadmill of production perspective, however, are far less enamored of the ecological modernization theory in contrast. In a 2002 collection of articles entitled The Environmental Slate Under Pressure, Schneeberg and his colleagues deny that the best hope for solving environmental problems is the adoption of new technologies. In the US at least, environmental policy-making continues to be written within an economic framework and the green movement has failed to become a major political force. This is evident, they argue, in industry pilferage and the weakening of recycling controls, and in the failure of the President’s Council on Sustainable Development during the Clinton Administration (1993 to 1999). Such cases fundamentally challenge the core tenets of ecological modernization theory.

Why do treadmill analysts differ so widely from ecological modernists? Schnaiberg suggests, rather diplomatically, that it has to do with differences in sampling approaches. Namely, ecological modernization (EM) theorists examine ‘cutting edge’ corporate innovations or ‘best practice’ industries and believe that these changes will eventually become widespread. Treadmill theorists are skeptical, noting that the EM breakthroughs announced by Moll and his colleagues may represent the ‘creaming’ of a program of ecological incorporation into production practices (Schnaberg et al. 2002: 29). In short, EM theorists are called naive to claim that green production practices are a powerful ‘third force’ and part of a trajectory in a sector such as the Dutch chemical industry.

Toward a future characterized by sustainability. Rather, firms undertaking ecological improvements do so either under direct pressure from state regulation or social movement action. Alternatively, these corrections are not genuine, having been achieved only through ‘creative accounting’ or misreporting (p. 29).

To be fair, ecological modernization theory has become ‘an important lens through which to view the changing economy-ecology relations of industrial societies’ (Desfour and Keel 2004: 55). this policy-making area

Especially true for where it has been widely adopted. Nevertheless, as Davidson and Frickel point out:

For every empirical study supporting the potential of ecological modernization, there are now many empirical analyzes that sound a number of warnings about the tendency for industry actors to undergo their own ‘greening’ process, especially as we move away from advanced countries. Let’s go ahead. of Western Europe.

(2004: 477)

Continuous development

The term development refers to social and economic development within countries and at the international level. Since the late 60s it has been increasingly recognized that global growth is uneven and thus threatens the livelihoods and lives of a large proportion of the world’s population. Many development issues are in the news, from the effects of globalisation, world trade agreements, food and malnutrition to people becoming refugees, health and disease, and the need for fair trade. In different ways, these issues also affect our community now and will continue to do so in the future.

Development is about improving the well-being of the people. Raising the standard of living and improving education, health and equality of opportunity are all essential components of economic development. Prior to the late twentieth century, imperial and colonial power structures dominated the world and made little provision for economic and social advancement in what we now call the developing world.

Colonial territories primarily supplied imperial powers with raw materials and cheap labor, including slave labor, until the mid-nineteenth century. Within the wealthy countries of Europe, North America, and Japan, economic growth was undoubtedly central to the generally accepted goals of progress and modernization, but there was relatively little concern for issues of equality and social justice. By the end of World War II, perceptions and policy had changed drastically and for the majority economic and social reform had become a major preoccupation of governments, and with the breakdown of colonial power relations this goal spread to the world’s poorer countries Was. , Economic development, with its social and institutional linkages, came to occupy an essential place in theory and policy, as well as in the Cold War contest between capitalism and communism.

environment and development

During the 1970s, as the environmental movement began to take hold, various ideological differences emerged over how people analyzed the nature of the problem, its causes, its likely consequences, and the actions needed to solve it. Two examples of different environmental ideologies are “anthropocentrism” and “ecocentrism”. An anthropocentrism sees people as separate from nature and nature

resources used for human benefit. They are of the view that all human activities should be in the primary interests of humans to achieve the desired objectives and goals of society, whether or not certain characteristics of the environment are left intact or disturbed. Ecocentrism is an environmental psychology that views human activities in terms of ecological components, their relative effects, and their implications for balance. Thus they are reformist in their aims, believing that environmental problems can be solved without deep change through a combination of new technology, legislation and public awareness. An ecological worldview is nature-centered and argues that humans are one of the elements in the web of life and that protection of the biosphere is more important than individual human needs, especially if they harm the environment.

People’s perception of development issues is deeply influenced by the western political ideology of neo-liberalism (Harvey, 2005). In it, the world views the rights of the individual and the attainment of human happiness as the supreme goal, based on the assumption that the individual is essentially rational and knows his or her own best interests. Although reinterpreted over time, peace, freedom, development and the environment remained the major issues and aspirations.

The main objective of development is the satisfaction of human needs and aspirations. It is about improving the well-being of the people. The basic needs of a large number of people in developing countries – food, clothing, shelter, jobs – are not being met, and beyond their basic needs, these people have legitimate aspirations for a better quality of life. A world in which poverty and inequality are endemic will always be prone to ecological and other crises. The world may be more prosperous in terms of income and production in the times to come, but we have some questions to ponder, will the environment be worse? Will future generations be worse off as a result of environmental degradation?

In the 1970s and 1980s, world commissions were created to study such international concerns. The World Commission on Environment and Development was initiated by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1982, and its report, Our Common Future, was published in 1987, chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland, then Prime Minister of Norway, thus the name Earned the “Bruntland Commission.” It has its roots in 1972

Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment-where the conflict between environment and

Evolution was accepted for the first time—and the International Union for Conservation of Nature

Also the World Conservation Strategy of the 1980s, which argued for conservation as a means to aid development, and in particular for the sustainable development and use of species, ecosystems and resources. Later in 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro (the so-called “Earth Summit”) issued a Declaration of Principles, a detailed Agenda 21 of desired actions, international agreements on climate change and biodiversity, and Statement of Principles on Forests. Ten years later, in 2002, at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, the commitment to sustainable development was reaffirmed.

Continuous development

Sustainable development is defined as development that takes place over a long period of time in intelligent and conservative ways. This is a point of conflict between environmentalists and economists. Economists consider sustainable development as development through which material benefits are obtained despite the harm caused to the environment, while environmentalists consider sustainable development as development that does not affect the quality of the environment.

To maintain means to maintain; keep in existence; keep growing; Long If applied only in this sense, sustainability does not mean much to human society. Human society cannot be kept in a single state, whatever it may be. Human society is a complex adaptive system embedded in another complex system, the natural environment, on which it depends for support. The environment is always changing and developing and this capacity for change and development must be maintained if the system is to remain viable (able to cope with its changing system environment) and durable.

The concept of sustainability is very old. The concept was first seen among the Greeks. It was so popular that provincial governors were rewarded or punished accordingly. Consistency can also be traced to Aristotle, according to which people’s preferences are at a particular time, satisfying whatever human welfare is only partially realized; It is also necessary to leave behind enough resources for future generations so that the future generations are not constrained in their priorities (Rao, 2000).

According to Harremeos (1996), mankind has the potential to eventually reach a solution, a sustainable society that can last for generations. He also says that the current growth, however, is not even close to anything like sustainability and is actually reducing the prospects for stability in both developed and developing countries. He also emphasized that sustainable society cannot be achieved without a fundamental change in our basic thinking, moral values, ethical concepts and religious beliefs.

Velinga et al. (1995) defined sustainable development as the maintenance and sustainable use of the functions (goods and services) provided by natural ecosystems and biospheric processes. According to them, in contrast, in a state of instability, where the limits of the biosphere’s carrying capacity are exceeded, all environmental functions can no longer be fully met.

Economic development without environmental considerations can cause serious damage, in turn reducing the quality of life of present and future generations. Sustainable development seeks to strike a balance between the demands of economic growth and the need to protect the environment. It seeks to combine elements of economic efficiency, inter-generational equity, social concerns and environmental protection. Although there are many interpretations of the term sustainable development, it generally refers to a decline in human well-being over time.

The concept of sustainable development aims at maximizing the net benefits of economic activity, maintaining a stock of productive assets (physical, human and environmental) over time and providing a social safety net to meet the basic needs of the poor. is subjected to. Sustainable development therefore seeks to accelerate development in an environmentally responsible manner, taking into account inter-generational equity requirements. The question of intergenerational inequality is at the core of the definition of sustainability and prompts a debate on what are the values of society and how to transfer these values to future generations. Pathways seen as economically optimal routes for development today may not be sustainable for future generations. Economically optimal routes may not be sustainable in the long run if welfare considerations are taken into account. Furthermore, sustainable pathways may not be economically viable.

The challenge is to achieve a balanced approach to development in terms of optimality and sustainability. Jacob, Gardner and Munro Sustainable development demands five broad requirements:

i) integration of conservation and development, i) satisfaction of basic human needs,

iii) Achievement of equity and social justice’

iv) Provision for social self-determination and cultural diversity and
v) Maintenance of ecological integrity.

The concept of sustainability was recognized by the modern world in the 1987 Brundtland Commission Report (WCED, 1987), when it emphasized the need for sustainable development, as Bruntland argued:

“The environment does not exist as an area separate from human actions, ambitions and needs, and

Attempts to defend it in isolation from human concerns have given the term “environment” a connotation of naïveté in some political circles. The term “development”-ment” has also been confined by some to a very narrow focus, along the lines of “what poor countries must do to become rich”, and thus again as a concern of experts. automatically dismissed by many in the international arena. Those involved in questions of “development aid”. But “environment” is where we live; and “development” is what we all do within that habitat. do in an effort to improve their position. The two are inseparable.”

According to the report, sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. There are three major components of sustainable development: economic growth, social equity and protection of the environment. Under the economic component is the principle that through optimum and efficient use of natural resources, the welfare of the society has to be maximized and poverty has to be eradicated. The Commission’s definition emphasizes the concept of “needs”, specifically referring to the basic needs of the world’s poor, which should be given overriding priority. The social component refers to the relationship between nature and human beings, the upliftment of people’s well-being, the improvement of access to basic health and education services, the meeting of minimum standards of safety, and the respect of human rights. It also refers to the development of diverse cultures, diversity, pluralism and effective grassroots participation in decision making. equity issue,

That is, the distribution of benefits and access to resources remain an essential component of both the economic and social dimensions of sustainable development. The environmental component, on the other hand, is concerned with the conservation and enhancement of the physical and biological resource base and eco-system.

Sustainable development is necessary to meet challenges such as the integrity of ecosystems. As the rate of world resource depletion is at its peak and population growth has been very rapid causing economic pressure, the concept of sustainability has to be incorporated in our planning. We need rapid growth but keeping sustainability in mind. Sustainable development (SD) has become a way of expressing the need to move beyond the current dominant models of development around the world, which appear unable to balance the needs of people and the planet in the pursuit of peace and prosperity. Internationally, sustainable development is associated with those directions of development that maintain and mutually reinforce economic, environmental and social conditions.

Applied in practice, this means that just as an economy (or sector) in a prolonged recession is not sustainable, neither is a situation where many people are denied opportunity and face poverty and social exclusion. Is. Equally, development that ignores the essential needs of the poorest or degrades the quality of our environment is not sustainable development.

The Sustainable Development Goals are firmly established in a large number of national, international and non-governmental institutions. At the intergovernmental level, sustainable development is now found as a central theme throughout the United Nations and its specialized agencies. Evidence of this change can be seen in the creation of the Division of Sustainable Development within the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the establishment of a Vice President for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development at the World Bank, and the announcement. United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.

involved in sustainable development

Sustainable development is thinking broadly about objectives and impacts (i.e. about costs and benefits in a broad sense) and not just separating things into economic, environmental and social compartments. It seeks to promote mutual reinforcement

Objectives of improving the overall quality of life rather than pursuing personal objectives such as maximizing short-term economy

Subtle development or improvement of some element of the environment without regard to other consequences.

At the heart of conducting sustainable development is the challenge of assessing and managing the complex interrelationships between economic, social and environmental objectives. For example, economic development is possible through the creative powers of human beings which enable the transformation of nature into meeting the basic needs and physical amenities of daily life. This transformation process often results in degradation of the natural environment which can result in air pollution, climate change and loss of biodiversity. Policy makers are thus faced with difficult decisions to strike the right balance between economic and environmental goals. Because benefits accrue to different groups at different times, determining the levels and rates of investment in each sector at any particular time involves making difficult choices. There is a need to assess the positive and negative economic, social and environmental consequences of policy changes. Areas of tradeoff, where gains in one or more areas result in losses in another, need to be identified and appropriate mitigation measures taken to reduce the negative impacts.

Today many developed and developing countries have adopted the concept of sustainable development. Similar to this concept

It has evolved over time from the initial focus on the environmental dimension to the current emphasis on sustainable development as a process integrating economic, social and environmental objectives. It is also recognized that achieving sustainable development requires far-reaching policy and institutional reforms and participation of all sectors at all levels. Sustainable development is not only the responsibility of the government or one or two sectors of society.

Sustainable development is incremental and builds on what already exists, and its achievement is as much a process as a definite goal. Sustainable development is not an activity that can be left for the long term. Rather, it is a set of short, medium and long term actions, activities and practices aimed at dealing with immediate concerns as well as long term issues.

Agenda 21 promotes national sustainable development strategies as a mechanism to translate the country’s goals and aspirations for sustainable development into concrete policies and actions. A national sustainable development strategy is one way in which countries

Addressing the challenge of moving towards the Sustainable Development Goals at the national, local and even regional levels.

The 1992 Earth Summit put it simply that any human activity is sustainable if it can continue indefinitely without harm to people or the planet. Any activity that harms people or the planet is the opposite – unsustainable. At the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, world leaders agreed that human activity was seriously damaging the environment and that issues of development, i.e. global wealth/poverty, affected the lives of people in both poor and rich countries. seriously harming life chances. , Thus the issues of welfare, environment and development of people and planet are now seen as two sides of the same coin. The term sustainable development emerged as shorthand to embrace these twin concerns.

Davison (2001) points out that the Industrial Revolution and subsequent technologies are what some people call ‘progress’. The triumphant history of industrialization is overshadowed by a history of social oppression and ecological degradation. The vast, unprecedented prosperity concentrated in highly technological societies is overshadowed by poverty and pollution, the extent of which is also vast and unprecedented. This is because much of our technology lacks the capacity to sustain sustainable ecological flourishing and social well-being.

According to WCED the operational objectives of sustainable development are

i) revive growth

i) Change in the quality of development

iii) Meeting the essential needs for jobs, food, energy, water and sanitation,

iv) Ensuring a sustainable l

population level,

v) Conservation and Augmentation of the resource base’
vi) Technology reconfiguration and risk management

vii) Merging of environment and economics in decision making

viii) Reshaping international economic relations, and

ix) Making development more participatory

Total

The time has come when economic planning for sustainable development should go hand in hand with environmental protection. The alternative before us is a sustainable or earthmanship society that aims at recycling and reusing materials, conserving energy, controlling population and pollution, and reducing the rate of consumption of materials including forests and energy so that resources are not depleted And don’t destroy the environment. Does not deteriorate due to overloading with debris and loss of vegetative cover.

Around the world, throughout history, most modern human institutions have developed in ways that are at best oblivious and, at worst, positively hostile to the health of the environment.

Economic development, to date, has been based on two erroneous premises: (1) it only considers the needs of mankind, and ignores interdependent ecosystems, and (2) it treats the environment as a commodity. . Man constantly strives for monetary gain and is enslaved and obsessed by technological advancement and achieving higher GNP. This obsession has degraded the environment and is poised to destroy the carrying capacity (i.e. the capacity of the ecosystem to support life) of Mother Earth. Land erosion and erosion have occurred; The water of rivers, lakes and oceans is so polluted with industrial waste that it is almost unfit either for industrial use or for human consumption. The air is full of gaseous and particulate pollutants that are toxic to life. Pesticides used to boost agricultural production and public health have seriously poisoned the environment. The environment should still be treated as common property.

Considered as such, each agent acts as if it owns it. Each agent of production and consumption considers the waste disposal cost to be zero and uses the environmental sector as long as it allows him to improve his welfare. He doesn’t have to pay anything to anyone. Careless use continues without any harm, and causes degradation of environmental standards, which is unhealthy and harmful to all.

the challenges we face

We believe that eradicating poverty, changing patterns of consumption and production, and protecting and managing the natural resource base for economic and social development are important objectives and essential requirements of sustainable development. The deep fault line dividing human society between rich and poor and the ever-widening gap between the developed and developing world pose a major threat to global prosperity, security and stability.

Globalization has added a new dimension to these challenges. The rapid integration of markets around the world, capital mobility and significant increases in investment flows have opened up new challenges and opportunities for the pursuit of sustainable development. But the benefits and costs of globalization are unevenly distributed, with developing countries facing particular difficulties in meeting this challenge.

In other words we can say that economic development is possible through the creative powers of human beings which enable the transformation of nature into meeting the basic needs and physical amenities of daily life and in turn the often lacking natural environment which may result. Air pollution, climate change and biodiversity loss.

Policy makers are thus faced with difficult decisions to strike the right balance between economic and environmental goals.

A just, environmentally and materially sustainable society that exploits the environment at the maximum sustainable rate would still be psychologically and culturally unstable. The sustainable development of human society has environmental, physical, ecological, social, economic, legal, cultural, political and psychological dimensions that require attention. Some forms of sustainable development can be expected to be more acceptable to humans and so this has led to the development of new concepts including sustainable development as a basis for overcoming the environment.

Mental Challenges.

One of the most cited definitions emphasizes the economic aspects by defining sustainable development as “economic development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Another takes a broader view, defining sustainable development as “the type of human activity that nourishes and perpetuates the historical fulfillment of the entire community of life on Earth.”

History of Sustainability and Sustainable Development

concept development

The report, Our Common Future, published by WCED, is taken as the starting point for most current discussions on the concept of sustainable development. The comprehensive report, prepared through a global partnership, constituted a major political turning point for the concept of sustainable development. But it is neither the starting point nor the possible end of the conceptual development process. As with any conceptual process governed by general evolutionary theory, there are some important conceptual precursors that have led to WCED’s definition of sustainable development, which has been followed by other conceptual efforts. This section focuses on the historical and ideological precursors to the concept of sustainable development and is divided into three distinct historical periods: pre-Stockholm, the period leading up to the Stockholm Conference on Environment and Development (before 1972) covering; WCED from Stockholm (1972–1987); and post-WCED (1987 onwards).

pre-stockholm

Nature has successfully demonstrated sustainable evolution for a few billion years, with indiscriminate disregard for the fate of individuals and even species. The principle of survival of the fittest, with its effectiveness and dynamism, but also its brutality and hardship, would not be accepted by the majority of mankind as a principle of sustainable development.

Few human societies have been sustainable in their environment over long periods of time by institutionalizing systems of exploitation, injustice, and class privilege that would be equally unacceptable to most of mankind today. Historically religious beliefs and traditions have taught us to view and act on non-human nature in the context of particular human interests, beliefs and social structures. Through religious beliefs and laws, we have socialized nature, humanized it. To a large extent, we have done this to satisfy human needs, abilities and power relations. Yet, at the same time, “religion has also represented the voice of nature to humanity” (Gottlieb 1996). Spiritual teachings celebrate and sanctify our relationship with the non-human world, reminding us of our fragile and inescapable partnership with air, land, water, earth, fire (the five elements in Hinduism) and other living beings .

Several authors have interpreted the Judeo-Christian writings about the “right of man to rule over the earth” (Genesis 1:28) as being used by Western societies.

but is found to be an essential source of destruction. Other religious environmentalists have discovered environmentally positive passages in classic texts, and they claim that Judaism and Christianity are more environmentally conscious than they might appear at first glance (Kinsley 1996). A critical review of writings from both sides leads to the conclusion that religions have been neither simple agents of environmental degradation nor pure repositories of ecological knowledge (Gottlieb, 1996). Although they have different contexts and structures, the core element of all indigenous traditions and beliefs is the importance of living in harmony with nature and society, which is one of the fundamental principles of the concept of sustainability.

Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834) is considered the first economist to predict the limits to development due to the scarcity of resources. By 1798, many bad effects of the Industrial Revolution had come to the fore. Unemployment, poverty, and disease were already problems that required remedial measures. In contrast to the views of William Goldwyn (1756–1836) and the Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794), Malthus held that “wickedness and misery

that plague society is not due to evil human institutions, but due to the fertility of the human race. This led to his theory of population. According to Malthus’ theory, uncontrolled population grows geometrically, while subsistence grows best arithmetically (Oser and Blanchfield, 1997). With David Ricardo (1772–1823), who originally derived from his population theory Agreed, Malthus expressed his “ideology of environmental limits” in terms of limits to the supply of good quality agricultural land and the resulting diminishing returns to agricultural production (Pierce and Turner 1990). The Malthusian theory of “environmental limits” can be considered a precursor to the concept of sustainable development.

Some experts believe that the concept of appropriate technology (D

as fines that take into account skills, population levels, availability of natural resources) and pressing social needs are immediate precursors to the concept of sustainable development.

The term sustainable comes from foresters in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, when deforestation was taking place across much of Europe and foresters became increasingly concerned, as timber was one of the driving forces in the European economy. Deforestation was, from an economic point of view, being done using clear-cutting techniques, meaning that loggers went through an area of forest and removed all the trees in the path. The forests that grew back after being cut down did not provide the wood fiber needed for the European economy. In response to this crisis, foresters, and especially German foresters, developed scientific or sustainable forestry. The idea at that time was simple i.e. if enough trees were planted every year to replace the wood provided by the trees that were cut down, and the growth rate of the entire forest was scientifically monitored to ensure that, So the forest will be sustainable. It will always grow enough wood fiber to replace the wood fiber lost during harvesting. Thus, in this basic idea, sustainable means that as a resource is used, it is replaced by growing additional amounts of the resource. In the modern context of the term sustainable, it is a difficult context because there are many resources, such as oil or iron ore, that cannot be grown. Yet, these resources, like the trees in Europe’s forests, are finite. If all the oil is taken out, there will be no more oil left.

In 1968, the Club of Rome was an international non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to the study of “world problems”, a term coined to describe global, multifaceted political, social, cultural, environmental and technological problems .

and long term perspective. It brought together scientists, researchers, businessmen and heads of state from all continents, including former USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev and Nobel Peace Prize winner Rigoberta Menchu Tum. Over the years, the Club of Rome produced “The Limits to Growth”, a report published in 1972 that brought ecological limits to economic and demographic growth to the doorstep of world public opinion. “Limits to Growth” is one of the first papers of importance to be published about ecological limits to economic and demographic growth. It highlights the results of mathematical simulations carried out on demographic and economic growth related to the exploitation of natural resources. Beyond the controversy raised by the findings of The Limits to Growth which left no one indifferent – the report to date makes the first push towards the definition of the foundations of a growth mode that we consider sustainable today.

According to DuBose et al. (1995), “Sustainable development can be traced back at least to the mid-1960s, when appropriate technology was promoted as a way to develop less developed countries.” By the early 1970s, many organizations and individuals promoted technology suitable for the developed world as well.

Stockholm to WCED

The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment took place in the summer of 1972 in Stockholm, Sweden. The relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation was first put on the international agenda when 113 nations met at the Stockholm Convention on the Human Environment.

gathered for the first global environmental meeting. It recognized “the importance of environmental management and the use of environmental assessment as a management tool” (DuBose et al. 1995), representing a major step in the development of the concept of sustainable development. Following the conference, governments established the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), which continues to serve as a global catalyst for protecting the environment today. Even if the link between environmental and developmental issues did not emerge strongly, there were indications that the nature of economic development would have to change.

Environment and development cannot remain in a state of conflict for long, became clear after the Stockholm Conference and in subsequent years the terminology

Evolved into terms such as “environment and development,” “development without destruction,” and “environmentally sound development,” and finally, the term “eco-development” appeared in a review of the United Nations Environment Program in 1978. . However, according to Tryzna (1995), the first major breakthrough in conceptual insight came from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Working closely with the World Wildlife Fund and the United Nations Environment Program for Nature, the IUCN formulated the World Conservation Strategy, which was launched internationally in 1980, providing a precursor to the Co.

Concept of sustainable development. The strategy stressed that conservation of nature cannot be achieved without development to reduce the poverty and suffering of millions of people and stressed the interdependence of conservation and development in that development depends on caring for the earth. Unless the fertility and productivity of the planet is protected, the human future is at risk. It was a major attempt to integrate environmental and development concerns into the umbrella concept of “conservation”. Although the term “sustainable development” did not appear in the text, the strategy’s subtitle, “Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development,” certainly highlights the concept of sustainability (Khosla 1995).

In 1984, the United Nations Assembly mandated Gro Harlem Brundtland, then Prime Minister of Norway, to form and chair the World Commission on Environment and Development, which is recognized today for promoting the values and principles of sustainable development.

The commission’s mandate was to suggest means to the international community to preserve the environment through better cooperation between developing countries and so-called developed nations, mainly considering the existing relationship between people, resources, environment and development. The purpose of the commission’s work was to create an outline of environmental issues and, ultimately, to develop an action plan defining the objectives of the international community in matters related to development and environmental protection.

An important footnote is that the work of the World Commission on Environment and Development was marked by two major environmental and human disasters that are part of our history today: the Bhopal, India catastrophe (1984), caused by a toxic gas leak from pesticides plants and as a result thousands of people die and get injured

thousands of others, as well as the explosion of four reactors at the Chernobyl nuclear plant in Ukraine (1986). Radioactive effects from this accident have had and will continue to have a negative impact on the health of affected populations and ecosystems.

The commission’s work led to the release in 1987 of the report Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report, which contained the key statement of sustainable development, which defined it as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the abilities of future generations”. defined as “fulfils”. meet your own needs” (WCED 1987). This definition marks the advent of the political age of the concept and establishes the content and structure of the current debate (Kirkby 1995). The Brundtland Commission’s conceptual definition includes two key concepts :

the concept of “needs”, especially the urgent needs of the world’s poor, which should be given paramount priority; And
Consideration of the limits imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the capacity of the environment to meet present and future needs.

By doing so, the Commission underlines the strong link between poverty alleviation, environmental improvement and social equity through sustainable economic growth. Not surprisingly, since it can be interpreted in many different ways, the Brundtland Commission’s definition of sustainable development has gained wide acceptance. As noted by Pierce et al. (1989), it fits well into the political soundbite compared to the “eco-development” of its predecessor; It’s something everyone can agree on, like motherhood and apple pie.

after WCED

The other major obstacle after the WCED is the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the “Rio Conference” or “Earth Summit”. Preparation for the conference held in June 1992. Bringing together nearly 200 government representatives and a large number of non-governmental organizations, the Earth Summit gave rise to the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, a key document reaffirming an international commitment to the principles of sustainable development. ,

UNCED produced key international documents at this meeting:

Convention on Biological Diversity;
Framework Convention on Climate Change (and its corollary, the Kyoto Protocol);
Agreement to combat desertification;
Statement of principles on management, conservation and sustainable development of forests.

Although much importance was given to the documents and declarations signed at the end of the conference, the most important legacy of UNCED was the nature of the preparatory process, which involved the participation of key stakeholders in most countries. ground level. This process took the concept of sustainable development to every corner of the world, exposing it to questions such as: What does it really mean for each community? How can we move beyond generalities and put them into practice? How do we know we are moving towards a standstill

world?

Under the Rio Declaration, signatory countries agreed that the protection of the environment and social and economic development are fundamental to reaching sustainable development. This declaration is an important step in establishing sustainable development priorities at the international level.

Considering the institutional foundation of the WCED and the global realities in the mid-1980s, the definition of sustainable development provided by the WCED makes a lot of practical sense. It has been extremely helpful in developing the new world view emerging today. Consensus on a vague concept rather than disagreement on a clearly defined one was a “good political strategy” (Daly 1996). However, by 1995, “this initial ambiguity was no longer the basis of consensus, but rather a breeding ground for disagreement” (Daley 1996). The acceptance of a largely undefined term as a basis sets the stage for a situation where whoever dictates his definition to the term will win a major political battle for influence in the future.

World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002)

In 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in Johannesburg, South Africa, was an opportunity for participants to renew their commitment to and make progress in the principles defined in the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 objectives.

Consider prioritizing some goals. These include poverty alleviation, change in consumption patterns and non-viable production, and conservation and management of natural resources. The participants also discussed the topic of globalization and the relationship that links health and development issues. Government representatives in attendance resolved to develop national sustainable development strategies to be implemented before 2005. Since 2002, some governments, international organizations and communities have adopted and implemented strategies, action plans and programs stemming from the directives outlined in the meeting.

The principles of sustainable development underpinned the agenda of the Rio Earth Summit where the Agenda 21 document outlining the ‘Global Partnership for Sustainable Development’ was approved. This massive document addresses a wide range of environmental and development issues and aims to provide a strategy for implementing sustainable development around the world. The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was created to monitor and promote the implementation of Agenda 21 in each country. By the mid-1990s most industrialized countries had published national sustainable-development strategies, and many local authorities launched local Agenda 21 strategies.

On 24 December 2009, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution (A/RES/64/236) agreeing to hold the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) in 2012 – known as ‘Rio+20’ or ‘Rio 20’. Also called , The conference seeks three objectives: to achieve renewed political commitment to sustainable development, to assess progress and implementation gaps in meeting previously agreed commitments, and to address new and emerging challenges. The member states have agreed on the following two themes for the conference: the green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty alleviation, and the institutional framework for sustainable development

Sustainable development has become part of the international vocabulary since UNCED. The concept has been included in many UN declarations and its implementation, while the complex has been at the forefront of the world’s institutions and organizations working in the economic, social and environmental fields. However, they all acknowledge how difficult it has proved to be to give the environment pillar the same recognition as the other two pillars received, with many calls by scientists and civil society indicating vulnerabilities.

and the uncertainty of the Earth since the 1960s.

The reach of sustainable development extends beyond government to the world of business and civil society. The World Bank has tried to overcome its bad reputation with environmentalists by publishing environmental reports, holding regular seminars, and sponsoring research on a wide range of environmental issues. The World Bank is also host to the Global Environment Facility, an institution responsible for financing the sustainable development of countries from north to south. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development, formed in 1995, is a coalition of 125 international companies from 30 countries and more than 20 industrial sectors, which

The overarching objective is to develop closer co-operation between business, government and all other organizations concerned with the environment. To encourage high standards of environmental management in sustainable development and business’. Several trade associations have also declared their support for sustainable development.

NT; For example, the insurance industry (which could potentially lose a lot if climate change caused sea level rise, floods and storms) took part in the March 1995 environmental commitment signed by more than 50 major insurers. issued a statement. These international efforts have been widely replicated nationally, where state-sponsored roundtables have brought together representatives from all sections of society – politicians, businesses, trade unions, churches, environmental groups, consumer groups – to discuss how sustainable To do development can be implemented. Despite this widespread enthusiasm, the precise meaning of sustainable development remains elusive.

Total

If the IUCN takes credit for first introducing the phrase “sustainable development” into an international forum, the Brundtland Commission, through its report Our Common Future (1987), was the major political turning point that gave the concept of great geopolitical importance. The coined and catch phrase it has become today (Holmberg 1994). Since the publication of this report, sustainable development has become increasingly

The very essence of environmental dialogue leads to very wide acceptance, with very diverse interpretations. According to Holmberg (1994), by 1994 there were over 80 different definitions and interpretations basically sharing the core concept of the WCED definition. Four decades ago, in Stockholm, we agreed on the urgent need

The answer to the problem of deteriorating environment. Ten years ago, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, we agreed that the protection of the environment and social and economic development are fundamental to sustainable development based on the Rio Principles. To achieve such development, we adopted the global program called Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, to which we reaffirm our commitment. The Rio Conference was an important milestone that set a new agenda for sustainable development.

Between Rio and Johannesburg, the countries of the world have met in several major conferences under the auspices of the United Nations, including the International Conference on Financing for Development, as well as the Doha Ministerial Conference. These conferences define a comprehensive vision for the future of humanity for the world.

At the Johannesburg Summit, we have accomplished much in bringing together a rich tapestry of people and ideas in creative search for a common path toward a world that respects and implements a vision of sustainable development. The Johannesburg Summit also confirmed that significant progress has been made in achieving global consensus and partnership among all the peoples of our planet.

There is some degree of concern about the deterioration of environmental standards around the world. Increases in economic well-being are rapidly being accompanied by substantial degradation of environmental quality and loss of ecological stability. Various groups of environmentalists have pessimistic and optimistic view about this but the fact remains that acid rain, global warming, greenhouse effect, soil erosion and infertility, land degradation, environmental pollution and depletion of ozone layer. Industrialization and globalization have changed the world. These trends have introduced complex economic systems, and they are often at the expense of biological and cultural diversity.

Development is a progressive change of economy and society. A development path that is sustainable in a material sense can theoretically be adopted even in a harsh social and political setting. But material stability cannot be secured unless development policies take into account considerations such as access to resources and changes in the distribution of costs and benefits. Even the narrow notion of material sustainability implies a concern for social equity between generations, a concern that should logically be extended to equity within each generation. Thus the goals of the economy

C and social development should be defined in terms of sustainability in all countries, developed or developing, market-oriented or centrally planned.

Over the past few decades, several definitions of sustainable development have been suggested and debated. When the World Commission on Environment and Development presented its 1987 report, Our Common Future, it sought to resolve the problem of conflict between environmental and development goals by formulating a definition of sustainable development: “development that meets the present without compromise”. meets the needs of future generations”, which has become the accepted standard definition. The United Nations attempted to reconcile these views by convening the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. It was here that for the first time the international community agreed on a comprehensive strategy to address development and environmental challenges through a global partnership. The framework of this partnership was Agenda 21, which included key aspects of sustainability i.e. economic

development, environmental protection, social justice, and democratic and effective governance.

when stability in our world

When it comes to describing, we should be concerned with three interrelated areas of sustainability that describe the relationship between the environmental, economic and social aspects of our world.

components of sustainable development

The definition of sustainable development given by the Brundtland Commission Report, Our Common Future, and further, Principle 1 of the Rio Declaration, states that humans are at the center of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. In the wider discussions and use of the concept since then, three major components of sustainable development have generally been identified, namely economic, environmental and social, to be more specific, economic growth, social equity and protection of the environment (Figure 15.1). ). ,

Sustainable development depends on the relationship between the economy, environment and society. Understanding the three parts and their links is key to understanding sustainability, because sustainability is about much more than quality of life. It is about understanding the relationship and achieving a balance between social, economic and environmental components.

Economic stability

From the point of view of neoclassical economic theory, sustainability can be defined in terms of maximizing welfare over time. Most economists simplify this further by identifying welfare maximization with the maximization of utility derived from consumption. An economically stable system must be able to produce goods and services on an ongoing basis, while maintaining manageable levels of government and external debt and avoiding excessive regional imbalances.

Economic sustainability involves creating economic value from the decisions we are making. It is a balancing act. The profitability and cost of a decision must be balanced with the environmental and social impacts of its consequences. Sustainable development improves the economy without reducing social or environmental imperatives. A sustainable community does not consume resources, energy and raw materials faster than the regenerative capacity of natural systems. A sustainable community interacts with four types of capital: natural, human, social and built capital. All four types of capital need to be looked after.

To a large extent environmental degradation is the result of market failure, that is, non-existent contexts or poorly functioning market services for environmental goods. In this context, environmental degradation is a special case of consumption or production externalities, reflected by the divergence between private and social costs (or benefits). What is usually regarded as an economic externality must be internalized i.e. many natural resources are shared and the true value of many environmental goods and services is not paid by those who use them. We do. For example, airlines don’t pay for the carbon dioxide they put into the atmosphere. Similarly, the cost of food does not reflect the cost of cleaning water bodies that have been polluted by runoff of agricultural chemicals from the land. Tobacco consumption highlights how areas of land are used to produce a product that is costly to the environment, to people’s personal health, and to society’s resources.

Health care.

Economic and political decisions ultimately have a huge impact on determining how the world’s resources are used (and wasted). More fundamentally, our main economic measure, gross domestic product (GDP), generally fails to measure environmental impacts because they are “external costs” borne by society.

If the cost of production includes the environmental impact, the cost of the safe disposal of many products and their waste, etc., it may help businesses to think more about environmental factors in their products and services. In market-based economies as well as in mixed economies, this will be important. When only the economic aspects of something are considered, it does not necessarily lead to true sustainability.

environmental sustainability

From an ecological perspective, sustainable development provides the integrity of both natural biological and physical systems and ensures their viability. The global stability of the biosphere depends on it. Particular importance is attached to the ability of such systems to self-reproduce and adapt to various changes, as opposed to being preserved in a stable state within a vacuum or deteriorating and losing their biological diversity.

Development has had major negative impacts on the environment and existing social structures. Many traditional societies have been ravaged by development. Urban areas in developing countries usually suffer from excessive pollution and inadequate transport, water and sewer infrastructure. Environmental damage, if unchecked, can undermine development achievements and even lead to the collapse of essential ecosystems.

The deep and widespread concern for environmental degradation arises from two major sources i.e. 1) Increase in material production, waste and use of synthetic materials 2) Increasing demand for environmental goods. The first refers to the problems of environmental externality and the second to the depletion of natural resources. In addition to the increased supply of economic goods, there has also been an increase in demand for environmental goods. environmental

These objects reflect any external environmental conditions that affect human well-being.

The environmental component of sustainable development includes the following requirements:

A healthy person in the center of attention should have the right to lead

life in harmony with nature;

equal opportunities for the development and protection of the environment for present and future generations;
Sustainable use of renewable resources (eg fresh water, aquifers, soil, biomass);
reducing the use of non-renewable resources (fossil fuels, minerals and loss of biodiversity);
meeting human needs, including access to natural resources, an adequate healthy environment and access to basic services;
Environmental protection should be an integral part of the overall socio-economic process and cannot be considered in isolation from it;
In contrast to traditional nature conservation practices, the emphasis should be on eco-awareness-raising activities related to the economy, above all, to eliminate the causes, not the effects;
Socio-economic development should be given a clear direction towards improving the standard of living of people within the acceptable limits of the economic potential of the ecosystem; And
To bring into focus the perceptions of ecology and the world about people and their systems of education.

The main focus in environmental sustainability is on natural resources used in specific projects or broad programs of human activities. The assumption is that economic growth is necessary to create assets for socio-economic development and thus improve the quality of life of citizens. Natural resources are essential for economic development but there are limits to their supply. In this sense, development should proceed but always at a rate which ensures sustainable use of resources.

Uncontrolled use of resources can lead to environmental degradation, which can result in the following:

Reduction in the quantity and quality of resources available for further consumption

and production.

Excessive use of the waste-absorbing capacity of the environment.
Loss of biodiversity.
Decreased environmental resilience has led to an increase in the incidence of hazards.
Increasing pressure on land for the built environment of the future.

There are many things that are directly related to environmental sustainability. One of the concepts that is of utmost importance is the proper management of our natural resources. Unlike economists, whose models provide no upper limit on economic growth, physical scientists and ecologists are accustomed to the idea of limits. Natural resource degradation, pollution, and biodiversity loss are harmful because they increase vulnerability, undermine system health, and reduce resilience, which is often critical to avoid catastrophic ecosystem collapse.

Unlike traditional societies, modern economies have only recently recognized the need to judiciously manage scarce natural resources because human well-being ultimately depends on ecological services. Ignoring safe ecological limits will increase the risk of undermining the long-term prospects for development. Many researchers argue that environment and geography

factors have been the major drivers of past growth and development.

social stability

In the social sector, the primary objectives are to achieve scientifically based standards of living standards, to increase life expectancy, to improve the living environment of the people, to develop their social activities, family planning, to improve the scale and pattern of personal consumption. rationalization, education, medical aid and equal access. Health recovery; Social security of the elderly, physically challenged and other vulnerable target groups etc. The social component of sustainable development refers to the relationship between nature and humans and is also oriented towards maintaining the stability of public and cultural systems, cultural diversity, pluralism, effective Grassroots participation in decision making and reduction in the amount of social conflict.

Living standards that go beyond the basic minimum are sustainable only if long-term stability in consumption standards is respected everywhere. Yet many of us live beyond the ecological means of the world, for example in our patterns of energy use. Perceived needs are socially and culturally determined, and sustainable development requires the promotion of values that encourage consumption standards that are within the limits of the ecologically possible and to which all can reasonably aspire.

Social sustainability parallels ideas about environmental sustainability. Reducing vulnerability and maintaining the health (i.e., resilience, strength and organization) of social and cultural systems and their ability to withstand shocks is critical. Increasing human capital (through education) and strengthening social values, institutions and equity improves the resilience of social systems and governance.

Social development generally refers to improvements in both individual well-being and overall social well-being that result from an increase in social capital—generally, the ability of individuals and groups of people to work together to achieve shared objectives. accumulation of potential. Social capital is the resource that people

are drawn upon in the pursuit of their aspirations and are developed through networks and affiliations, membership of more formal groups and relationships of trust, reciprocity and reciprocity. The institutional component of social capital refers primarily to formal laws as well as traditional or informal understandings that govern behavior, while the organizational component is embodied in the institutions (both individuals and social groups) that exist within these institutional arrangements. Let’s work We can assume that human capital (eg, education, skills, etc.), and cultural capital (eg, social relationships and customs) are also included within social capital – although fine distinctions exist. A socially sustainable system must achieve distributive equity, adequate provision of social services including health and education, gender equality, and political accountability and participation.

Social sustainability is based on the concept that a decision promotes the betterment of society. In general, future generations should enjoy the same or greater quality of life as current generations do. The concept includes many things such as human rights, environmental law and public participation and involvement. Failure to emphasize the social part of the decision or action may result in stability and even a gradual collapse of areas of society. a great example of social stability

Passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972 (and amendments in 1977) and the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1974. Overall, these sets of laws were great pieces of legislation that set minimum water quality standards for both surface and drinking water. The Clean Water Act also served to protect our nation’s water supply by essentially making it illegal to discharge pollutants into adjacent rivers, lakes, and streams.

component target

Ecological limits and uniform standards encourage consumption that is ecologically feasible for all economic activity and equitable resource allocation ensures economic development that allows all people to meet their needs. The basic goals of sustainable development can be achieved as mentioned below:

Population control prevents the population from exceeding the productive capacity of the ecosystem.

Resource conservation protects the carrying capacity of all natural systems and identifies the productive potential of sustainable production ecosystems.

Resource retention reduces the rate of depletion for non-renewable resources. Species diversification conserves and protects plant and animal species.

Adverse impact mitigation Prevents damage to ecosystems due to pollution Community control Prevents exploitation and degradation of ecosystems

Comprehensive national/international framework jointly manages the biosphere pursues economic viability economic well-being

environmental quality makes environment q

Reality is a corporate goal, and environmental auditing tracks the progress of environmental management systems.

In the light of the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, the most essential socio-economic criteria of sustainable development are:

sustainable livelihoods and quality of life;
poor elimination;

Changes in consumption and production patterns;
health care and improvement;
improving the demographic situation;
Crime retribution in the life of society.

Expansion in population can increase pressure on resources and slow the rise in living standards in areas where scarcity is widespread. However the issue is not just one i.e. size of population but distribution of resources. Sustainable development can be pursued only when demographic developments are commensurate with the changing productive capacity of the ecosystem.

indicators of sustainable development

Since sustainable development goes beyond economic issues, linking the economy, environment and society, there exists no single macroeconomic theory related to sustainable development. However, progress towards sustainable development is often measured by a variety of indicators, which may be used at the local, regional, national or international level. It is widely accepted that indicators of sustainable development are important tools to focus attention on sustainable development and assist decision makers at all levels to adopt sound national sustainable development policies. The 1992 Earth Summit recognized its importance and called on countries and the international community to develop such indicators. In response, the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) approved the Indicators on Sustainable Development in 1995 and culminated in a set of 58 indicators based on a theme/sub-theme framework. The set of indicators was adopted by the CSD in 2001 after extensive consultation and national testing programmes. The World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 and subsequent sessions of the CSD encouraged further work on indicators of sustainable development by countries in line with national circumstances and priorities, and called upon the international community to support the efforts of developing countries in this regard. invited.

Several reasons for the need to find indicators of sustainable development

Huh:

Indicators of sustainable development are needed to guide policies and decisions

At all levels of society: village, town, city, county, state, region, nation, state

Island and the World.

These indicators represent all significant concerns: an ad hoc collection of indicators that merely appear to be relevant is not sufficient. A more systematic approach should look at the interactions of systems and their environment.
The number of indicators should be as few as possible, but not less than necessary. That is, the indicator set should be comprehensive and compact, covering all relevant aspects.
The process of finding an indicator set should be participatory to ensure that the set captures the attitudes and values of the community or region for which it is developed.
Indicators should be clearly defined, reproducible, clear, understandable and practical. They should reflect the interests and views of various stakeholders.
With a glance at these indicators, it should be possible to deduce the feasibility and sustainability of current development and compare it with alternative development paths.
There is a need for a framework, a process and criteria for finding an adequate set of indicators of sustainable development.

Sustainable development indicators are more in the nature of indices that reflect the status of overall concepts or social goals such as human development, sustainable development, quality of life, or socioeconomic well-being. The indicators provide early warnings about unsustainable trends in economic activity and environmental degradation.

Sustainable development includes economic performance, social equity, environmental measures and institutional capacity as its core components. Examples are located in the box on the left. Within the economic performance component, the selected indicators are nationally and internationally well-known and commonly used measures that reflect important issues of economic performance, business and financial condition. Consumption and production patterns are also represented, providing additional coverage of material consumption, energy use, waste generation and management, and transportation.

Economic issues such as international cooperation, consumption and production patterns, financial resources and mechanisms, transfer of technology, etc. have indicators such as real GDP per capita, growth rate (%), exports of goods and services, imports of goods and services. Depletion of mineral resources (of proven reserves), per capita annual energy consumption, ratio of consumption of renewable sources to non-renewable sources

Freshwater Resources, Land Resources Planning and Management, Combating Desertification and Drought, Sustainable Mountain Development, Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development, Combating Deforestation, Conservation of Biodiversity, Biotechnology for Sustainable Development There are priority areas and various indicators of these environmental components of sustainable development. Development Green house gases are their emissions/concentrations, SOx, NOx emissions, toxic contamination (POC, heavy metals) land conversion; land fragmentation, species abundance, waste generation (municipal/industry/agriculture), water resources and demand/use intensity residential/industrial/agriculture and demand/supply ratio; Forest resources and their intensity of use, degradation of forest cover, protected area forests, fish resources, fishing; Soil degradation – land use change/top soil loss; Ocean/coastal emissions – oil spills; deposition water quality coastal zone management; ocean protection environmental index pressure index, etc.

The quantity and quality of social interactions underpinning human existence, including the level of mutual trust and the extent of shared social norms, help determine the stock of social capital. Thus social capital increases with greater use and is lost with disuse, in contrast to economic and environmental capital which depreciates or diminishes with use. Social components of sustainable development such as poverty, demographic mobility and stability, promotion of education, public awareness and training, protection and promotion of human health, various indicators of human settlements including traffic and transportation, employment rate, total fertility rate, population growth rate Huh. Population density, access to safe drinking water, exposure of urban population to different types of polluting gases, motor vehicles in use, number of megacities, expenditure on low cost housing, per capita infrastructure expenditure, etc.

Equality and poverty alleviation are important. Thus, social goals include protective

Strategies that reduce vulnerability, improve equity and ensure basic needs are met. Future social development will require socio-political institutions that can adapt to meet the challenges of modernization – which often destroy the traditional coping mechanisms that disadvantaged groups have developed in the past.

In its broadest sense, the strategy of sustainable development aims to promote harmony among human beings and between humanity and nature. The pursuit of sustainable development requires:

A political system that ensures effective citizen participation in decision making.
An economic system that is self-sustaining and capable of generating surplus and technical knowledge on a sustained basis
A social system that provides solutions for the tensions arising out of disharmonious development.
A production system that has the obligation to preserve the ecological base for development

respects,

a technical system that can continuously search for new solutions,
An international system that promotes sustainable patterns of trade and finance, and
An administrative system that is flexible and has the capacity for self-correction.

These requirements are more in the nature of goals that should underlie national and international action on development. What matters is how sincerely these goals are pursued and the effectiveness with which deviations from them are corrected. Here are some general ideas important to sustainable development in our policy:

Environment management plans should be integrated into all developmental activities of all regional authorities who have the primary responsibility of environmental protection.
A mass education and awareness program for everyone from primary school children to professionals, policy makers, decision makers and everyone in between;

The Environment Departments of the Center and the States have to do the following

Keep an eye on the dog’s role and clubbing with other departments is counterproductive;

The key to success in the environment lies in cooperation between the central and state governments; Environmental management including impact assessment should be a statutory obligation for all development projects.

Environmental Priorities for Sustainable Development in India

Keeping in view the rapid environmental degradation, the following environmental priorities have been identified for sustainable development in India:

Population Stabilization

As we know that the world population is around 6 billion and India has crossed the 1 billion mark and its population has increased 4 times since last 100 years. The overpopulation of people has led to the depletion of resources and demographic pressures lead to economic pressures.

Due to this increase in population the following tensions have arisen:-

i) Decrease in availability of land: Due to increase in population a disastrous situation has arisen

increase in availability of land

i) Increase in Industrialization: Due to increase in population, the needs of the people are increasing very fast. Therefore, there is an increase in the demand for manufactured goods and in turn there is a need for more and more industries which release more and more gases into the atmosphere and contribute to global warming.

iii) Deterioration of sanitary conditions: Increase in population and paucity of space has led to a decrease in sanitation facilities and a deterioration in sanitary conditions.

iv) Economic loss: Increase in population causes economic loss. This has also reduced the food supply. Thus, stability needs to evolve in a population for stability.
Integrated Land Use Plan

Land is and has been one of the important components of the life support system.

overuse and abuse. Ours is primarily an agricultural country where land comes first. There are many competing demands on the land such as agriculture, forestry, grasslands, urban and industrial development and transportation. Planning is very important for proper use of land otherwise it will lead to wastage and degradation of land so land has to be used wisely.

Healthy crop land and grasslands

India has done well in agriculture over the years and there has been a tremendous increase in production. But with increasing population, there is an urgent need to boost productivity per unit area per unit time. This can be made possible in India by:

Reducing the gap between actual and potential yields and thus making agriculture grow vertically rather than horizontally.
Introduction of genetics especially genetic engineering in agriculture.
With the help of biotechnology it may be possible to free up substantial land from the present agricultural holdings.
Strategies to reduce the loss of topsoil.
Also, the problem of grasslands and overgrazing has not been given due attention. This has resulted in eco-degradation due to the fact that we have the largest number of livestock in the world with very little in terms of productivity. That’s why collective effort is needed.

Woodland and Revitation

The reason for the decline in forest cover is the demand for forest based commodities. To meet the demand, forests are being cut down at an alarming rate, leading to ecological disturbances such as floods, CO2 (global warming) by removal of topsoil, etc. Along with these problems there is a wide gap between the demand and supply of timber. Miscellaneous Uses. Therefore, a strategy has to be made to meet the deficiency against the two main objectives of forestry: –

(i) To afford long term ecological security

(ii) Supply of goods and services to people and industry in a deliberate manner

Out of production plan.

To achieve these objectives, there is a need to practice 3 broad types of forestry namely conservation, production and social forestry.

i) Conservation forestry – It will cover natural vegetation in watersheds, fragile ecological zones and biosphere reserves, national parks etc. Where no commercial exploitation can be allowed.
i) Production or Commercial or Industrial Forestry – It aims to meet the raw material demand of all forest based industries.

iii) Social, community or agro-forestry: Basically, it is a multi-purpose forestry for food, timber, fuel and fodder to meet the needs of the village which will reduce the pressure on conservation forests.

Bio

conservation of diversity

The biological wealth of our country is immense but due to large scale human interference the diversity of various species is at a great risk. Our conservation efforts should be primarily directed towards the conservation of flora and fauna including the big cats; large mammals; plants, especially forest vegetation; Micro-organisms and marine biological wealth. To maintain this biological diversity

a) It is important to base conservation efforts on ecosystem and not species basis.
b) All sanctuaries and national parks have to meet the minimum area requirement of the species to be included in them.
c) More and more Biosphere Reserves should be declared.
Control of water and air pollution

All development is accompanied by pollution in some form or the other. The major sources of pollution in our country are domestic waste, thermal power, industry, irrigation, auto-exhaust emissions and misuse of agricultural chemicals. Pollution creates some problems like global warming, deterioration of health, disturbance of ecological balance.

Development of non-polluting renewable energy systems

Energy is a very important input for development and there is a correlation between the level of development and the amount of energy used by a country.

There are two types of energy resources, renewable and non-renewable. Non-renewable forms of energy are considered energy capital. Most of the non-renewable energy resources like coal, petroleum, fuel wood etc. are highly polluting.

There is a need to develop non-polluting renewable energy resources such as micro-hydro, solar, wind, tidal, ocean and geothermal resources.

Recycling of waste and residues

In order to maintain stable economic growth in the future, it is necessary to use resources carefully and develop technologies for recycling wastes and residues. There is a global recognition that a nation that will not be able to recycle materials will not be able to sustain itself as one time use will lead to scarcity.

Ecologically friendly human settlements and their improvement

Absence of housing in urban, slums and rural areas leads to much human misery along with deterioration in physical health, economic, social and cultural environment. Slums lack water supply and sanitation systems, leading to unhygienic conditions and various health hazards. If we are serious about improving the living conditions of the vulnerable sections of the society, it is important that the lifestyle of urban people is less energy demanding and less consuming. The people of the village should be made self-reliant so that their demands can be fulfilled in the village itself.

Environmental Education and Awareness

Today, one of the major priorities of the Central Government is environmental education. In fact, with the acceptance of the Tiwari Committee Report (1980), the country has accepted the need for environmental education.

The non-formal sector should cater to basic courses to educate adults, rural-youth and non-student youth, tribal and forest dwellers, children, people’s representatives, senior officers and administrators, and probationers of various services including the armed forces.

updating environmental laws

While there are many Central and State laws and Acts that have direct or indirect relevance to the environment, none, except perhaps the Water and Air Acts, take care of the short and long term impacts on the environment. There is an urgent need to update the existing laws. In fact, this should be done as a regular activity so that the laws are able to meet the new environmental challenges and save the country from future environmental damage.

summary

Sustainable development is the concept of meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. The term originally applied to natural resource situations, while today, it is applied to a wide range of topics, including economic development, the environment, food production, energy, and social organization. Sustainable development is usually defined to include three basic components i.e. economic, social and environmental. These three components include: a) Economic activity must serve the common good, be self-renewing, and create local wealth and self-sufficiency.

b) Environment – humans are part of nature, nature has limits, and communities are responsible for protecting and creating natural assets. c) Social – To achieve equality i.e. opportunity for full participation to all in all activities, access, benefits and decision making of the society.

The three areas of sustainability include a range of concepts that explain how decisions and actions can impact the overall sustainability of our world. Sustainable development efforts will also promote the integration of the three components of sustainable development, economic growth, social development and environmental protection, as interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars. Poverty alleviation, changing unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and protecting and managing the natural resource base for economic and social development are the main objectives and essential requirements of sustainable development. An economic state where people and commerce

The demands placed on the environment can be met without reducing the potential of the environment for future generations. It can also be expressed in the simple words of an economic golden rule for a revitalized economy: leave the world better than you found it, don’t take more than you need, try not to harm the life of the environment,

Using ecosystems and their resources in a way that meets current needs while allowing ecosystems to replenish themselves and to maintain ecological processes and functions, biological diversity and productivity over time At the same time, it protects against pollution that damages biological systems.

Good governance within each country and at the international level is essential for sustainable development. At the domestic level, sound environmental, social and economic policies, democratic institutions responsive to the needs of the people, the rule of law, anti-corruption measures, gender equality and an enabling environment for investment are the basis for sustainable development.

It is widely accepted that indicators of sustainable development are also important

To focus on sustainable development and assist decision makers at all levels to adopt sound national sustainable development policies. Indicators are monitoring tools to assess the sustainability of the social, economic and environmental components of sustainable development.

continuous development

The commission submitted its report in 1987, commonly known as the Brundtland Report, titled “Our Common Future”. The report warned that the greedy pattern of development is largely responsible for environmental pollution and degradation of natural resources. The report concludes that the solution to this problem lies in adopting a new pattern of development called ‘sustainable development’.

According to the World Commission on Environment, sustainable development can be defined as “development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Asthana and Asthana,

2012). The concept of sustainable development is in line with the wise use of resources promoted by conservationists. This means that development processes must guarantee environmental protection not only for today, but also for future generations. It advocates eco-friendly technologies that do not harm the environment, in this regard environmental sustainability is synonymous with the principles of not only resource conservation but also ecological modernization.

Endangering or compromising the environment and resources for the next generation. Thus, how do environmental attitudes affect environmental sustainability? For example, an exploitative attitude is certainly the opposite of environmental sustainability. By the way, the destruction of the environment has always been the result of such lackadaisical attitude. Conservationist and protectionist approaches ensure environmental sustainability. However, conservationists allow some degree of industrial development which the protectionist fights for total protection, so such an attitude would definitely hinder human development to some extent. Overall, both are done through activism through lobbying and passivity of laws and regulations to conserve natural resources.

sustainable development goals

On 25 September 2015, at the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit, world leaders adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to end poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change. One set is included. 2030.

The Sustainable Development Goals, otherwise known as the Global Goals, built on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the eight anti-poverty goals and the environmental sustainability goals, which the world committed to achieving by 2015. The MDGs, adopted in 2000, aim for an array of issues including reducing poverty, hunger, disease, gender inequality, access to water, improved sanitation and environmental sustainability. The universal need for development that works for all people

The Sustainable Development Goals include: Goal 1: No poverty; Goal 2: Zero Hunger; Goal 3: Good health and well-being; Goal 4: Quality education; Goal 5: Gender equality; Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation; Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy; Goal 8: Decent work and economic growth; Goal 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure; Goal 10: Reduce inequalities; Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities; Goal 12: Responsible consumption and production; Goal 13: Climate Action; Goal 14: Life under water; Goal 15: Life on Land; Goal 16: Strong institutions of peace and justice; Goal 17: Partnership for the Goals.

Environmentalism

Environmentalism is a concern for the planet as a whole. It is a broad philosophy and social movement that focuses on the concern for the protection and improvement of the environment. Environmentalism is associated with the color green. environmentalism can be defined as a

Social movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education to protect natural resources and ecosystems. In recognition of humanity as a participant in the ecosystem, the environmental movement focuses on ecology, health, and human rights. Similarly an environmentalist is ‘a person who advocates for the sustainable management and management (conservation and restoration when necessary) of resources.

natural environment through changes in public policy or individual behaviour’. Environmentalists and environmental organizations seek to give the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs through grassroots activism and protest. Notable environmentalists include Al Gore, David Bellani, Bob Brown, Lester Brown, David Suzuki, Chico Mendes, etc. Their activism takes the form of public education programs, advocacy, legislation, and treaties. Environmental movements are either government run or private (NGO). Notable movements include: Green Movement in Nigeria, European Environment Agency (EEA), Earth Liberation Front, Green Peace, Earth First, The Wilderness Society, Friends of the Earth, Eco World etc.

Environmental Policy and Decision Making

Politics and environment cannot be separated. For example in the United States the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government all influence environmental policy. Environmental regulation has aged over the past 30 years in the United States

This has raised concerns in some sectors of society. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw a new international concern about the environment in both developed and third world countries. Environmentalism is also seen as a growing factor in international relations. This concern is leading to international cooperation where before there has only been tension. While no world political body exists that can enforce international environmental protection, the list of multilateral environmental organizations is growing. It’s too early to tell what the end result will be, but progress is being made toward protecting our shared resources for future generations.

Several international conferences and treaties such as the World Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro 1992, Kyoto Protocol, Japan 1997, the most recent COP 21 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris, etc. have been successful. In the final analysis though, we all have to adjust our lifestyles as citizens of the earth to clean up our little part of the world.

Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals, as well as maintaining the ability of natural systems to provide natural resources and ecosystem services on which economies and societies depend. The desired outcome is a state of society where living conditions and resources are used to meet human needs without diminishing the integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development can be defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising on the potential

While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1987 Brundtland Report, it is also rooted in earlier ideas about sustainable forest management and twentieth-century environmental concerns. As the concept evolved, it shifted its focus towards economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations. It has been suggested that “the term ‘sustainability’ should be viewed as humanity’s stated goal of human-ecosystem balance, while ‘sustainable development’ refers to a holistic approach and to temporal processes.

which brings us to the final point

Sustainability” Modern economies are attempting to reconcile ambitious economic growth and obligations to conserve natural resources and ecosystems, as the two are generally seen as having contradictory natures. Climate change commitments and other sustainability measures are linked to economic growth. Instead of keeping them as a way of turning and taking advantage, they have to do more good in market opportunities. The economic growth brought about by such organized principles and practices in an economy is called Managed Sustainable Development (MSD).

concept of sustainable development

It has been, and still is, the subject of criticism, including the question of what should be retained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as sustainable use of a non-renewable resource, as any positive rate of exploitation will eventually deplete the Earth’s finite reserves; This perspective makes the Industrial Revolution completely untenable. It has also been argued that the meaning of the concept has opportunistically expanded from ‘conservation management’ to ‘economic development’, and that the Brundtland Report promotes nothing but trade as a general strategy for world development. , a vague and

incompatible concepts as a public

relationship slogan

History

Sustainability can be defined as the practice of maintaining indefinitely the world processes of productivity – natural or

Man-made – by replacing used resources with resources of equal or greater value without threatening natural biological systems. Sustainable development ties together the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social, political and economic challenges facing humanity. Sustainability science is the study of the concepts of sustainable development and environmental science. Additional focus has been given on reviving, maintaining and maintaining the responsibility of the present generation

improving planetary resources for use by

future generations.

Sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management that developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In response to the growing awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, John Evelyn argued that “the sowing and planting of trees should be regarded as the national duty of every landowner, in order to prevent the disastrous over-exploitation of natural resources”. could” 1662 Essay Silva.

In 1713 Hans Karl von Karlowitz, a senior mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, published Silviculture economics, a 400-

Page work on forestry. build upon

Ideas from Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, von Karlowitz developed the concept of managing forests for continuous yield. [11] His work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of the science of forestry. This, in turn, influenced people such as Gifford Pinchot, the first head of the US Forest Service, whose role in forest management

The Per approach was inspired by the idea of wise use of resources, and by Aldo Leopold, whose land ethics were influential in the development of the environmental movement. in the 1960s.

After the publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in 1962,

Attracted the developing environmental movement

Focusing on the relationship between economic growth and development and environmental degradation. Kenneth E. Boulding in his influential 1966 essay The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth identified the need for the economic system to fit itself into the ecological system with its limited pool of resources. One of the first uses of the word sustainable in the contemporary sense

by the Club of Rome in 1972 in their classic report on Limits to Growth, written by a group of scientists led by Dennis and Donella Meadows of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Describing the desired “state of global equilibrium”, the authors wrote: “We are searching for a model output

represents a world order that is

sustainable without sudden and uncontrolled collapse and capable of meeting the basic material needs of all its people.”

Following the Club of Rome report, an MIT research group prepared a ten-day hearing for the US Congress on “Growth and Its Implications for the Future” (Roundtable Press, 1973), the first hearing on sustainable development. William Flynn Martin, David Dodson Gray, and Elizabeth Gray prepared the hearings, chaired by Congressman John Dingell.

In 1980 the International Union for Conservation of Nature published a world

conservation strategy that includes a

First reference to sustainable development as a global priority and introduced the term “sustainable development” Two years later, the United Nations World Charter for Nature raised five principles of conservation by which to guide and judge human conduct affecting nature Have to go In 1987 the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development released the report Our Common Future, commonly referred to as the Brundtland Report. The report contained what is now one of the most widely recognized definitions of sustainable development.

sustainable development is development

that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It includes two key concepts within it:

the concept of ‘needs’, in particular, the urgent needs of the world’s poor, which should be given paramount priority; And
consideration of the limits imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the capacity of the environment to meet present and future needs.” – World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future (1987)

The concept of sustainable development has evolved since the Brundtland Report.

beyond early intergenerational

In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development published the Earth Charter, which outlines the building of a just, sustainable and peaceful global society in the 21st century. Agenda 21, an action plan for sustainable development, has identified information, integration and participation as important building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. It emphasizes that everyone is a user and provider of information in sustainable development. It stresses the need to change from old sector-centric ways of doing business to new approaches

which includes cross-sectoral coordination

and the integration of environmental and social concerns into all development processes. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasizes that broad public participation in decision-making is a fundamental condition for achieving sustainable development.

The Millennium Declaration identified principles and treaties on sustainable development, including economic development, social development and environmental protection, under the principles of the United Nations Charter. Broadly defined, sustainable development is a systemic approach to growth and development and to the management of natural,

produced, and social capital for welfare

of ourselves and future generations. The term sustainable development as used by the United Nations includes both issues related to land development and broader issues of human development such as education, public health and living standards.

A 2013 study concluded that sustainability reporting should be reframed through the lens of four interrelated domains: ecology, economics, politics and culture.

Education for Sustainable Development

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) is defined as education

Encourages change in knowledge, skills,

Values and vision to enable a more sustainable and equitable society. ESD aims to empower and equip present and future generations to meet the needs using a balanced and integrated approach to the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.

Concept

The concept of ESD was born out of the need for education to address the growing and changing environmental challenges facing the planet. To do this, education must transform to provide knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that empower learners to contribute to sustainable development.

development. as well as education

All agendas, programs and activities that promote sustainable development

It should be strengthened in the laws. Sustainable development should be integrated into education and education should be integrated into sustainable development. Promotes ESD Integration

These important sustainability issues in local and global contexts in the curriculum to prepare learners to understand and respond to a changing world. ESD aims to produce learning outcomes that include key competencies such as critical and systematic thinking, collaborative decision making, and taking responsibility for present and future generations. since the traditional one-directional distribution of

knowledge is not enough to motivate

ESD entails rethinking the learning environment, physical and virtual, to enable learners to take action as responsible citizens. The learning environment itself must adapt and implement a whole-institution approach to embed a philosophy of sustainable development. Building teacher capacity and policy support at the international, regional, national and local levels helps bring about change in educational institutions. Empowered youth and local communities interacting with educational institutions play an important role in driving sustainable development.

Decade for Sustainable Development

United Nations Decade of Education launched

For Sustainable Development (2005–2014) launched a global movement to reorient education to address the challenges of sustainable development. Building on the achievement of the decade described in the Aichi-Nagoya Declaration on ESD, UNESCO endorsed the Global Action Program on ESD (GAP) at the 37th session of its General Conference. Adopted by United Nations General Assembly resolution A/RES/69/211 and launched at the UNESCO World Conference on ESD in 2014, GAP aims to enhance actions and good practices. UNESCO has a leading role with its partners to ensure significant achievements in promoting the principles of ESDare through formal, non-formal and informal education.

International recognition of ESD as a key enabler for sustainable development continues to grow. The role of ESD was recognized at three major United Nations summits on sustainable development: the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992; 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa; and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) in Rio de Janeiro in 2012.

Other major global agreements such as the Paris Agreement (Article 12) also recognize the importance of ESD. Today, ESD is arguably at the heart of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and

sustainable development goals

(SDGs) (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs recognize that all countries should encourage action in the following key areas – people, planet, prosperity, peace and partnership – to address global challenges critical to the survival of humanity. ESD is explicitly mentioned in target 4.7 of SDG4, which aims to ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to promote sustainable development, and to achieve this in all other 16 SDGs (UNESCO, 2017). to be understood as an important means to

Subgroups of Sustainable Development Plan of Sustainable Development:

at the confluence of the three elements

parts. (2006)

Sustainable development can be thought of in terms of three areas, dimensions, domains or pillars, i.e. environment, economy and society. The three-sector framework was initially proposed by economist René Passet in 1979. It has also been referred to as “economic, environmental and social” or “ecology, economy and equity”. This has been expanded by some authors to include a fourth pillar. of culture,

institutions or governance, or alternatively

Socio-ecology was reconfigured as the four domains of economics, politics, and culture, thus bringing economics back inside the social, and ecology as the intersection of the social and the natural.

Relationship between Ecological Footprint and Human Development Index (HDI)

The ecological sustainability of human settlements is part of the relationship between humans and their natural, social and built environments. also called human

ecology, it focuses

Sustainable development to include the field of human health. Basic human needs such as the availability and quality of air, water, food and shelter are also the ecological basis for sustainable development; Addressing public health risk through investment in ecosystem services can be a powerful and transformative force for sustainable development, which in this sense extends to all species.

Environmental sustainability is concerned with the natural environment and how it is sustained and remains diverse and productive. Since natural resources are obtained from the environment, the condition of air, water and

Climate is of particular concern.

The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report outlines the current knowledge about the scientific, technical and socio-economic information related to climate change, and lists options for adaptation and mitigation.

society for environmental sustainability while preserving life

Activities need to be designed to meet human needs

Planetary Support System. It emphasizes, for example, the sustainable use of water, the use of renewable energy, and sustainable material supplies (such as harvesting wood from forests at a rate that maintains biomass and biodiversity).

An unstable situation occurs when natural capital (the total

nature’s resources) are used up faster than

can be filled. Sustainability requires that human activity only use nature’s resources at a rate at which they can be naturally replenished. The concept of sustainable development is inherently intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term consequence of environmental degradation is its inability to sustain human life. Such a decline on a global scale should mean an increase in human mortality, until populations fall to a level that the degraded environment can support. If the decline continues beyond a certain tipping point or critical threshold, it will eventually lead to extinction for humanity.

Sustainable Development Plan:

At the confluence of the three constituent parts. (2006)

Equity”. This has been extended by some

authors to include culture, institutions or a fourth pillar of governance, or alternatively reconfigured as the four domains of the social – ecology, economics, politics and culture, thus bringing economics back inside the social went, and ecology was regarded as the intersection of social and natural.

Relationship between Ecological Footprint and Human Development Index (HDI)

ecological sustainability of human settlements is part of the relationship

between human beings and their natural, social

and the built environment. Also called human ecology, it broadens the focus of sustainable development to include the area of human health. Basic human needs such as the availability and quality of air, water, food and shelter are also the ecological basis for sustainable development; Addressing public health risk through investment in ecosystem services can be a powerful and transformative force for sustainable development, which, in this sense, extends to all species.

Environmental sustainability is concerned with the natural environment and how it is sustained and remains diverse and productive. since

obtained from natural resources

The state of the environment, air, water and climate is of particular concern. The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report outlines the current knowledge about the scientific, technical and socio-economic information related to climate change, and lists options for adaptation and mitigation.

Environmental sustainability requires society to design activities to meet human needs while preserving the planet’s life support systems. It emphasizes, for example, the sustainable use of water, the use of renewable energy, and sustainable material supplies (such as harvesting wood from forests at a rate that maintains biomass and biodiversity).

an intolerable situation arises

When natural capital (the sum total of nature’s resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished. Sustainability requires that human activity only use nature’s resources at a rate at which they can be naturally replenished. The concept of sustainable development is inherently intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term consequence of environmental degradation is its inability to sustain human life. Such a decline on a global scale should mean an increase in human mortality, until populations fall to a level that the degraded environment can support. If the decline continues beyond a certain tipping point or critical

will lead to the threshold

eventual extinction for humanity. Sustainable Development Plan:

At the confluence of the three constituent parts. (2006)

ecology, economics, politics and culture,

Thus bringing economics back within the social, and treating ecology as the intersection of the social and the natural.

Relationship between Ecological Footprint and Human Development Index (HDI)

The ecological sustainability of human settlements is part of the relationship between humans and their natural, social and built environments. Also called human ecology, it broadens the f

To include the work of sustainable development

of human health

domain. original

Human needs such as the availability and quality of air, water, food and shelter are also the ecological basis for sustainable development, addressing public health risk through investment in ecosystem services can be a powerful and transformative force for sustainable development, Which in this sense, extends to all species.

Environmental sustainability is concerned with the natural environment and how it is sustained and remains diverse and productive. Since natural resources are derived from the environment, the condition of air, water and climate is of particular concern. Outline of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report

Current knowledge about scientific,

Technical and socio-economic information related to climate change, and a list of adaptation and mitigation options.

An unsustainable situation occurs when natural capital (the sum total of nature’s resources) is used faster than it can be replenished. need stability

that human activity only uses nature

Resources at the rate at which they can be naturally replenished. The concept of sustainable development is inherently intertwined with the concept of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term consequence of environmental degradation is its inability to sustain human life. Such a decline on a global scale should mean an increase in human mortality, until populations fall to a level that the degraded environment can support. If the decline continues beyond a certain tipping point or critical threshold, it will eventually lead to extinction for humanity.

Sustainable agriculture involves environmentally friendly methods of farming that allow the production of crops or

livestock without harm to human or

natural system. This includes preventing adverse effects on soil, water, biodiversity, nearby or downstream resources, as well as those working or living on the farm or in neighboring areas. The concept of sustainable agriculture extends interactively, rather than passing on a conserved or improved natural resource, biological, and economic basis that has become depleted or polluted. Elements of sustainable agriculture include permaculture, agroforestry, mixed farming, multiple cropping and crop rotation. This includes agricultural methods that do not harm the environment, smart agricultural technologies that enhance the quality environment for humans to thrive, and

reclaiming and transforming deserts

The Ranch (Herman Daly, 2017).

ecological crisis

Never in the entire history has our planet Earth seen the magnitude of ecological crises that we are experiencing today. The carrying capacity of the earth has become too much due to the pollution of water, air and land on a daily basis. Scientists, scholars and even governments around the world have realized that the global environment is changing rapidly as a result of global warming and climate change induced by human industrial and domestic emissions of greenhouse gases. Related environmental crises such as floods, desertification, drought, loss of biodiversity, erratic rainfall patterns, overgrazing, pollution, and so on have affected the lives of millions of people across the world. Millions of livelihoods have been destroyed, cultures have changed, communities have been displaced as the effects of climate change devastate communities globally. The nature of climate change suggests that the global environment is at risk and human societies are at greater risk as human beings themselves are at risk; This is because environmental problems do not respect any national boundaries, they can be local in cause but global in effect.

represented an early attempt to locate the This new ecological paradigm is a conscious attempt to challenge the perceived anthropocentrism of classical sociology (i.e. the emphasis on environmental processes in early sociological theory) by including environmental forces as objective variables in social explanations (Gross and Heinrich, 2010: 3). ) Anthony Giddens (2009: 159) supported this stand when he argued that the founders of early sociology – Marx, Durkheim and Weber – paid little attention to what we now call ‘environmental issues’ (p. 159). In contrast, Butel (1986 cited in Hannigan 2006:8) believes that arguably the trinity of Marx, Durkheim and Weber had an underlying environmental dimension to their work, although this was never brought to the fore , largely because their American translators and interpreters favored social structural interpretations over physical or environmental interpretations.

However there have been attempts to show that classical sociologists captured the society-environment relationship in their theory and these include the work of Caton 2002; West 1984; Bellamy Foster 1999; Dickens 2004; Dunlop et al. 2002; Murphy 1997; Verdu 2010 and so on. Accordingly, Giddens (ibid) believes that the role of sociology in the study and analysis of environmental issues can be summarized as follows: First, sociology can provide an account of how patterns of human behavior interact with natural processes. create pressure on the environment; Second, sociology can help us understand how environmental problems are distributed. Third, sociology can help us evaluate policies and proposals aimed at providing solutions to environmental problems.

Environment

Guided by the limits of your environment. Similarly, Cunningham and Cunningham (2004) state that environment refers to all the circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or group of organisms. He further expanded his definition of environment as the social and cultural conditions that affect an individual.

or community. According to Varika (cited in Okaba 2005) although environment means different things to different people, it is defined as a physical environment, conditions, circumstances etc. in which people live. For him, the environment includes nature which is the physical part of the physical world including all the phenomena of the physical world including plants, animals, landscape, etc. and the entire ecosystem, the biological community of interacting organisms. Waripamo (cited in Jack 2014) states that the environment is more concerned with the conditions that support the existence of human beings. For him, environment means a large set of elements which include water, air, land and all plants and man himself; the other animals living in it and above all the interrelationships that exist between these or any of them. Overall, the way one views the environment, it is the total conditions that surround an organism (biological or social) during its life that facilitate or hinder the development and survival of that organism.

components of the environment

Burstein, J. (1996) claimed that environment is made up of two categories; living and non-living. He called the living component of the environment “biotic”, which includes plants, birds, mushrooms, insects, etc. Other non-living components of the environment, which he called “abiotic”, include things like water, soil, air temperature, air, and wind. the sunlight. He emphasized that the environment is an interaction of biotic and abiotic factors.

These biotic and abiotic components of the environment are further divided into four categories:

Lithosphere (Land): Outer layers of earth’s soil e.g. Rocks, sediments and soil.
Atmosphere (Air): The layer of gases that extends from the surface of the earth to the outer limits of our planet for about 100 km.
Hydrosphere (Water): The layers of water that cover our planet oceans, lakes, rivers, streams and ice sheets Ice and water in the soil.

Biosphere: It is the thinnest layer, consisting of organic matter such as plants and animals. This layer covers most of the land surface and extends into the atmosphere and into deep water bodies. Human beings are part of the biosphere and exist by interacting with the other three spheres.

An environment is therefore a system or community of biotic and abiotic components that are maintained by the interactions of food chains and energy cycles as seen in food webs.

Environment – Society Relations

has been constant and the nature of this interaction is changing as human societies change in their organisation, structure and advances in technology (Sibiri 2009). Human society does not exist in a vacuum but within a physical environment, so the importance of this relationship is underlined in the sense that human existence is entirely dependent on the environment to maintain its welfare needs (food, shelter). depends on capacity. more clothes). Environmental sustainability, on the other hand, is also bound by man’s judicious use of the physical environment and its innumerable resources, which ensure and guarantee the real source of man’s continued existence (Okaba 2005).

However, as the human population grows, with associated urbanization and technological advancement, man has not been as judicious in his use of environmental resources (food, water, energy, mineral resources, forests and wildlife) over time as he has been able to sustain his basic needs. Struggles to meet needs. In an effort to meet the growing demands of a larger society, it encroaches on the environment. Therefore, the relationship between man and his environment can be measured and summarized by defining the functions of the environment. Thus, Schaefer and Laman (1986) pointed out three basic functions of the environment which are basic prerequisites for human life, these include: (a) that the environment provides essential resources for life (air, water and raw materials) provides; (b) that the environment also serves as a waste reservoir, e.g. body waste, garbage and sewage; (c) Human beings and other living organisms live in it.

ya samudaay. varika (okaaba 2005 mein idea for exploitation of natural resources, which subjugated the ecosystem. agriculture alters species mix, timber harvesting for industries leads to deforestation, arid and semi-arid lands Overgrazing of animals leads to desertification, aquatic ecosystems are polluted by agricultural chemical runoff and industrial wastes result in biodiversity loss and extinction. The inability of species to adapt to changes in their environments. As a result of rapid population growth. increased demands on Earth’s resources, leading to rapid environmental degradation, and potentially severe global climate change. Human impact on land has been enormous, as land-use has changed, natural Vegetation has been cleared for agricultural use and urbanization has increased, resources have been created, minerals have been extracted, and more land has been developed for recreational purposes. Deforestation of boreal and tropical forests, grass, land and degradation of wetlands and desertification Widespread concern is now expressed over Karan. Such destruction of natural ecosystems has resulted in decreased biodiversity, and soil depletion, In efforts to counter the harmful effects of land abuse in the regions, exotic plants and animals are being carefully monitored and They are being encouraged. Human influence on the soil has also caused some significant damage, usually due to poor agricultural practices, excessive drainage, poor irrigation, and compaction by heavy vehicles and animals. The cumulative effects of these can be devastating for countries whose economies are heavily dependent on agriculture. Correcting these poor practices and improving soil quality require an understanding of soil chemistry and nutrient supply cycles. Oceans and seas cover more than two-thirds of the Earth’s surface. It is thought that life almost certainly evolved from the sea and that there is more species diversity in the sea than anywhere else on Earth. Many food chains and food webs begin with organisms living in the seas and oceans. The ocean-atmosphere system controls the global climate. This is a sensitive thermostat. The seas and oceans are rich in food and mineral resources. However, over-exploitation and population

Evidently, this society-environment interaction which is anthropocentric (human-centred) in nature has led to what is known as contemporary global environmental change (Verdu 2010).

and they are manifested in the following: depletion of the ozone layer, global warming and climate change. The concept climate change refers to any change in climate resulting from both natural variability and anthropogenic factors. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (1992) in its Article 1 defines climate change as ‘climate change’ that is directly or indirectly attributable to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere And what is in addition to this. Natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” (Onuoha 2008). These changes in global climate have both environmental and social implications for human society. To corroborate this point, Radclift and Woodgate (2010) claim that ‘the notion of an environmental singularity has been reinforced in recent years as a result of the widespread attention to global environmental change and global warming; These events lead to the final manifestation of the biophysical environment as an integral global biospheric and atmospheric system, the degradation of which will have consequences for all people on Earth. The environmental effects of climate change include the melting of glaciers and a rise in sea level that leads to perennial flooding; draft; loss of biodiversity; desertification; Deforestation etc. In turn, the social consequences of these climate change-related environmental problems include displacement of human populations by floods and droughts, famine, hunger and migration, health epidemics, loss of economic livelihoods, etc. Scarcity of resources such as water and land scarcity leads to food insecurity and forced migration with the potential for resource conflict between groups. Loss of biodiversity has detrimental effects on cultural knowledge among local groups/societies etc.

ecological modernization theory

Ecological modernization theory, in contrast to the previous theories highlighted earlier (which equate economic development with environmental welfare), offers some degree of optimism in the relationship between society and the environment. This principle is concerned with the practicality of achieving environmental improvements through the transformation of production and consumption patterns to environmentally friendly technologies (Barrett and Fisher 2005). According to Spargren and Mol (1992: 334) ecological modernization means an ecological switch to the industrialization process.

A direction that takes into account the maintenance of the existing livelihood base. The model is based on the work of the German author, Huber (1982; 1985 cited in Hannigan 2009), who analyzes ecological modernization as a historical phase of modern society. In Huber’s scheme, an industrial society develops through three stages: (1) industrial success; (2) the construction of an industrial society; and (3) the ecological switchover of the industrial system through a process of ‘super-industrialisation’, made possible by a new technology: the invention and dissemination of microchip eco-friendly technology. Barrett and Fisher (2005:4) suggest that the theory has two key components: first, the theory clearly describes environmental improvements as being economically viable; In fact, entrepreneurial agents and economic/market dynamics are seen as playing a leading role in bringing about the necessary ecological change. Second, in the context of the expectation of continued economic growth, ecological modernization reflects the emergence of a coalition of political actors promoting the political feasibility of environmental protection. These two components are associated with the increasing independence (or loosening of restrictions) of the ecological sector from the political and economic spheres in state and industrial policy-making (Spargren and Mol 1992). In his analysis of the theory, Giddens (2009: 195) argues that ecological modernization theorists affirm the fact that modernization has brought economic prosperity but also environmental destruction, so business as usual is no longer possible. Not there. However, in salvaging the precarious situation, it rejects radical environmentalist solutions, such as de-industrialisation advocated by neo-Marxists. Instead they focus on technological innovation and the use of market mechanisms to bring about positive results, change methods of production and reduce pollution. a source of. In fact he argues that an ecological form of evolution is theoretically

It is possible and that if consumers demand environmentally sound production methods and products, the market mechanism will be forced to try and deliver them (Giddens 2009; Spargren and Moll 1992). An example of such ecological modernization technology is the introduction of catalytic converters and emissions controls on motor vehicles, which has been delivered within a short period of time and shows that advanced technologies can make a big difference to greenhouse gas emissions. Emphasis on recycling waste instead of dumping it in landfill

Paper, plastic, etc. reduce waste and help save trees. Accordingly, Mol and Sonnenfeld (2000 cited in Giddens 2009) hold that ecological modernization theory emphasizes that five social and institutional structures must be designed ecologically:

Need to transfer:

Science and Technology to work towards the invention and delivery of sustainable technologies
Markets and Economic Agents: Providing incentives for environmentally friendly outcomes.
Nation-State: To shape the market conditions that allow this to happen
Social movements: putting pressure on business and the state to move in an ecological direction.
Ecological Ideologies: Helping to persuade more and more people to join the ecological modernization of the society.

Dryzek (cited in Barrett and Fischer 2005: 5) in 1997 identifies five ecologically modern societies—Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway and Sweden; Japan stands out in the environmental stakes in large part because of the energy-efficiency of its economy.

In evaluating ecological modernization theory, Hannigan (2009) concluded that ecological modernization ideologues should be commended for attempting to stake a rational position among ‘destructive’ environmentalists who preach that the Earth Nothing short of de-industrialisation will suffice to save the world from destruction. ecological Armageddon and capital proponents who prefer a business as usual approach (Sutton 2004: 146 cited in Hannigan, ibid).

Environmental Ethics and Worldview

Individuals and groups conceive of different perceptions of the environment; Thus developing a diverse worldview and attitude towards the environment. There are three major environmental approaches that inform the three major environmental ethics, as discussed below: Each of these ethical positions has its own code of conduct against which ecological mortality can be measured.

Anthropocentrism – development / exploitative ethics

Anthropocentrism is a human-centered attitude towards the environment. Environmental anthropocentrism is the view that all environmental responsibility stems from human interests alone. Only human beings are morally significant beings and have direct moral status. The environment is vital to human well-being and survival; Therefore, the indirect duty of man towards the environment derived from human interest is

It is a worldview or attitude that supports the exploitation of the environment for human development without caution. Adherents of this approach argue that the environment is self-sustaining and thus human exploitation has no effect on the ecological balance.

The early colonists belong to this group, they developed a careless attitude towards resources. This was due to an environment of opportunity and rising expectations with the new availability of land. Nature was seen as an obstacle that had to be tamed and overcome in order for society to progress, as popular ideas of nature ‘in the raw’ or nature ‘red in tooth and claw’ suggest. According to Giddens (2009: 157), for a minority of peoples, nature and society were seen as separate, but nature was not seen as needing to be tamed. Bryan (1991) argued that for early colonists, wilderness areas and raw natural resources uncontrolled by humans were unproductive and worthless unless human labor was mixed with them. The process of converting crude oil into fuel. To support their exploitative position they use the theological rationalization that ‘God appointed man to dominate the earth’ (see Genesis 1:28), so man cannot take advantage of the vacant land, but inhabit it. and by culture.

Furthermore, the exploiters see no shortage of raw materials, as these resources are valuable only when combined with human labor which is the real scarce resource. they

barely recognize waste as a byproduct of transforming raw resources (Bryan 1991: 77). The attitudes and actions of the exploiters are guided by their two-pronged principles:

Postulate of utility:- which asserts that the production of goods for human use is a good thing. It symbolizes the value of productivity for human use.

Postulate of abundance:- It states that ‘any natural resource, before it can be converted into a ‘product’ by humans, can be replaced by a substitute resource without a significant increase in the cost of production. It formalizes the view that no actual waste is involved in the waste of raw resources (Bryan, op.cit). The two axioms constitute an approach to growth and development that cannot support a moral rejection of raw products or the “waste” of the systems that produce such products.

Biocentrism – The Preservation Ethic

Biocentrism is a life-centred attitude towards the biological diversity of the environment. Life-centered theory holds that all forms of life have an inherent right to exist. It considers nature and all forms of life to be special in itself. Nature has intrinsic value or inherent value beyond human appropriation. Biocentrism therefore advocates the protection of the environment and all life forms free from human interference.

Environmental protection, therefore, is the setting aside of natural resources to prevent contact with humans or damage caused by certain human activities, such as logging, mining, hunting, and fishing

to be replaced by new human activities such as tourism and recreation. , John Muir, who was the first president of the Sierra Club in 1892, was a leading proponent of the conservation movement. Muir views his quest to preserve nature as ethical, he advocates for ‘righteous management’. He raised his voice against human arrogance which judges nature only according to human values. listen to them:

“How narrow are we selfish, conceited creatures in our sympathies! How blind to the rights of our fellow mortals! Although alligators, snakes etc. naturally repel us, they are not mystical evil. They are… part of God’s family, not fallen, not corrupt and they are taken care of

the same kind of tenderness and love that is offered to angels in heaven or saints on earth” (Bryan, 1991: 7).

Muir rejected the axiom of abundance advanced by the exploitation and growth school, but he reinterpreted the axiom of utility. He objected to the common argument that nature is valuable only because of human uses. To him it is arrogant, egotistical and insensitive to the needs of other beings (Byron, ibid: 79). He justified the preservation of the beauty of nature because he believed that the experience of nature heals the alienation of modern industrial society; In short communication with nature and its beauty will promote higher consciousness in man.

He questioned the utility axiom because of its human-centred approach. He saw wild nature as a means to spiritually inspire awe. For example, river valleys are sacred places for them, so nature can be protected by modifying the principle of utilitarianism, i.e. by recognizing non-material and non-consumptive human values such as beauty, pleasure and spiritual fulfillment.

According to Brain (ibid: 80), Muir rejected both the utility and abundance theories because of the following:

i) It neglected human spirituality.
ii) It is based on the concept of being anthropocentric i.e. it is human centered.

Finally, Muir put forward ‘axioms of values’ which included:

i) some are not clearly expressed

Accepted the utility of nature for humans.

ii) A commitment to the “spiritual usefulness” of nature to man.

iii) the belief that nature, viewed in a larger perspective, was God (Bryan, ibid).

Ecocentrism – Conservation Policy

Ecocentrism is an environment-centered attitude. It emphasizes an environmental or ecological balance. It maintains that the environment derives direct ethical consideration and not merely from human (anthropocentric) and animal/plant (biocentric) interests. Accordingly, the ecological claim of radical ecologists that nature should be placed ‘at the center of moral concern’,

Politics and Scientific Studies’ (Sutton 2004: 78 cited in Hannigan 2009). It is related to scientific conservationism but extends rational thought to the whole earth and forever.

Therefore protectionism emphasizes efficiency of resource use and sustainable development. It recognizes the desirability of a decent standard of living but works towards a balance between the use of resources and the availability of resources. The policy emphasizes on a balance between all round development and full protection. It stresses that rapid and uncontrolled growth in population and economy is self-defeating in the long run. The goal of this ethic is “people living together indefinitely in a world”. The protectionist movement began in America in the late 19th century. This movement was a reaction against the dominant trend of exploitation. They responded to the ghastly destruction with disapproval i.e. moral disgust (Bryan, 1991).

Most conservationists view natural ecosystems and other species as resources and are primarily concerned with the ‘judicious use of resources’. The leading proponent is Guilford Pinchot, who was the first official forester of the United States. This group judges all questions according to the criteria of the largest number for the largest number in the long run. Unlike protectionists, protectionists allow some degree of industrial development, albeit within sustainable limits. Pinchot therefore rejected the axiom of abundance, but not the axiom of utility. Conservationists emphasize the avoidance of waste in the current pursuit of economic growth.

Pinchot defined resource conservation as “the maximization of the material well-being of all people” (Bryan, ibid: 78). So the resource should be used wisely and for humane purposes. In his words, “The first great fact about conservation is that it stands for development … Its first principle is the use of the natural resources that exist on this continent for the benefit of those who now live here” (Bryan , ibid: 7).

continuous development

The different worldviews and attitudes of exploiters, conservationists and conservationists largely guide and influence their perceptions, thoughts, actions and responses to the environment and consequently their position towards environmental sustainability. Environmental sustainability is concerned with the effect that

Actions taken in the present have an impact on the options available in the future. therefore evolutionary research should not be

A closer look at the origins of the concept of sustainable development reveals that in 1983, the United Nations General Assembly established the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), consisting of scientists from all walks of life, headed by Crowe Harlem Brundtland. was made. , The commission submitted its report in 1987, commonly known as the Brundtland Report, titled “Our Common Future”. The report warned that the greedy pattern of development is largely responsible for environmental pollution and degradation of natural resources. The report concludes that the solution to this problem lies in adopting a new pattern of development called ‘sustainable development’.

Inefficient development is consistent with the wise use of resources promoted by conservationists. This means that development processes must guarantee environmental protection not only for today, but also for future generations. It advocates eco-friendly technologies that do not harm the environment, in this regard environmental sustainability is synonymous with the principles of not only resource conservation but also ecological modernization.

Environmental legislation

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

Some laws related to hazardous waste

Factories Act, 1948 and its amendment in 1987

Environmental laws are generally designed and implemented to protect natural resources. in fact they probably fr

Amended to regulate the production and emission of pollutants, reduce the effects of pollutants, or regulate production processes that affect the environment. It is important to note that the implications of the enforcement of environmental laws are also visible on the economic, political, social and cultural status of the country. Therefore, environmental laws are important instruments to implement clean and efficient practices to protect the environment.

Rapid economic, scientific and technological progress has shown massive consequences in the form of degradation of the ecological balance. Due to the large scale of the environmental crisis, the global community has expressed major concern on environmental protection and environmental development. In the midst of some serious efforts, significant developments took place in the international scene.

The world’s attention was drawn to the environment in a sincere attempt to tackle pollution control at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972. The Declaration on the Human Environment was passed containing twenty-six principles, the main objective of which was to overcome the environmental problems related to the development of the states and to provide clean and healthy living conditions.

The Earth Summit, held by the United Nations General Assembly in Rio de Janeiro from June 3 to 14, 1992, was an important milestone achieved towards the protection of the environment. The conference witnessed the largest gathering of world leaders ever in history.

– brainstorming and chalking out a blue print for the survival of the planet. It added a new dimension to international negotiations on environmental and development issues.

The main objective of the summit was to find an equitable balance between the economic, social and environmental needs of present and future generations and lay the foundation for a global partnership between developed and developing countries on the one hand as well as government agencies and non-governmental organizations on the one hand. Among the various achievements of the Rio conference was the signing of two conventions, one on biological diversity and the other on climate change.

The World Summit on Sustainable Development was held in Johannesburg where, 10 years after the Rio Conference, the summit reaffirmed sustainable development as a central e.

part of the international agenda and has given a new impetus to global action to fight

Poverty and protecting the environment. The Summit’s Implementation Plan is a seventy-one page document that aims to set the world’s environmental agenda for the next ten years and

The subject is expected to become a model for international agreements. The Plan of Implementation aims to build on the achievements made in UNCED and commit to taking actions and measures at all levels to implement the Rio Principles and Agenda 21.

impact in india

In the early years of Indian independence, there was no precise environmental policy. From time to time, the government tried to make efforts according to the growing needs of the society. The period of the 1970s saw a lot of changes in the policies and approaches of the Government of India when its attitude shifted from environmental indifference and later took manifold steps to improve the environmental situation. However, it must be acknowledged that with the strengthening of public interest litigation and increased commitment on the part of the central government in the late 1970s, constitutional provisions expanded to include aspects relating to the environment.

The year 1972 proved to be a milestone in the history of environmental management in India. This is because prior to 1972, environmental concerns such as sewage disposal, sanitation and public health were dealt with by different federal ministries and each pursued these objectives in the absence of a proper coordination system at the federal or intergovernmental level. When the twenty-fourth United Nations General Assembly decided to hold a conference on the human environment in 1972, and requested a report from each member country on the state of the environment, a committee on the human environment was formed under the chairmanship of Pitamber Pant, a member of the Planning Commission. Went. Established to prepare India report. With the help of reports, the impact of population explosion on the natural environment and the current status of environmental problems were examined.

Environmental Law in India

Constitutional Provisions for Environment Protection in India

The Constitution of India as originally adopted did not contain any direct and specific provision regarding the protection of the natural environment. Nevertheless, a careful analysis of the various provisions prior to the 42nd Constitutional Amendment reveals that some of

The Directive Principles of State Policy showed little inclination towards environmental protection. These Directive Principles impose a duty on the State, individually and collectively, to improve the general level of health in the country and to create conditions for the protection and improvement of the natural environment. These directions were judicially enforceable and still are not. Keeping in view the Stockholm Conference and the growing awareness of the environmental crisis, the Indian Constitution was amended in the year 1976. This gave it an environmental dimension and added direct provisions for the protection of ecological and biological diversity.

Article 48-A

The responsibility of the State with respect to environmental protection is laid down under Article 48-A of our Constitution which comes under the Directive Principles of State Policy. According to this article “the State shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country”.

Article 51-A(g)

Environment protection is a fundamental duty of every citizen of this country under Article 51-A(g) of our Constitution, which reads as follows, “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and preserve the natural environment including forests, lakes and Improve. Have compassion for rivers and wildlife and living creatures.

Article 21

Article 21 of the Constitution is a fundamental right which is as follows:

“No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”

Article 47

The responsibility of the State with regard to raising the level of nutrition and the standard of living and improving public health is laid down under Article 47 of the Constitution which reads as follows:

“The State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties and, in particular,

The State shall endeavor to prohibit the consumption, except for medicinal purposes, of intoxicating drinks and drugs injurious to health.”

In the year 1974, the 42nd amendment to the constitution was brought in, in which the state government was given the responsibility to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. The latter, under fundamental duties, makes it the fundamental duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment.

To have compassion for forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living beings.

environmental act

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

One of India’s major environmental enactments came just two years after the Stockholm Conference in 1974. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was passed with the objective of preventing and controlling water pollution and maintaining and restoring the purity of water. , The Water Act represents India’s first attempt to deal with an environmental issue from a legal perspective.

The act represents India’s first attempt to comprehensively deal with environmental issues. The Act prohibits the discharge of pollutants in excess of a given standard into water bodies, and prescribes penalties for non-compliance. The Act was amended in 1988 to bring it in line with the provisions of the EPA, 1986. This CPCB (Centre

National Pollution Control Board), which sets standards for the prevention and control of water pollution. At the state level, the SPCBs (State Pollution Control Boards) work under the direction of the CPCB and the state government. These boards are tasked with monitoring the status of water pollution in the country and setting standards for acceptable and unacceptable levels of pollution.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977

The Act provides for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by industries and local authorities. It aims to augment the resources of the Central and State Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution. Following this act, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules were framed in 1978 to define the standards and signs for the type and location of meters that every consumer of water is required to install.

From this period onwards, the central government is considered to be highly pro-active from an environmental point of view. In 1976, the Constitution of India was amended to include a separate fundamental duties chapter. The 1980s saw the creation of several environment-specific organizations. In the year 1980, the Forest (Conservation) Act was passed to conserve forests and prevent further deforestation.

Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

This act was adopted to protect and conserve forests. The Act restricts the powers of the State with respect to the dereservation of forests and the use of forest land for non-forest purposes (the term “non-forest purpose” includes any land for cultivation of cash crops, plantation crops, horticulture or any other kind). also includes clearing of forest land (for purposes other than reafforestation).

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

Recognizing the importance of wildlife resources and for the conservation of these resources, India has taken important steps by establishing Wildlife Board of India (1952), creation of Wildlife Park Sanctuaries, Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972), International Convention One side has been formed. Trade in endangered species of flora and fauna (CITES, 1976) and by initiating conservation projects for individual species such as hangul (1970), lion (1972), tiger (1973), crocodile (1974), etc.

The Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972) establishes a network of ecologically important protected areas. The Act empowers the central and state governments to declare any area as a wildlife sanctuary, national park or closed area. There is a complete ban on any kind of industrial activity inside these protected areas. It provides the authorities for the administration and implementation of the Act; regulating the hunting of wild animals; protect designated plants, sanctuaries, national parks and closed areas; prohibiting trade or commerce in wild animals or animal articles; and miscellaneous matters. The Act prohibits hunting of animals without the permission of the authorized officer when an animal has become dangerous to human life or property or has become so disabled or sick that it cannot be cured. The almost complete ban on hunting was made more effective by the 1991 Amendment Act.

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

It was enacted by invoking the power of the Central Government under Article 253. The Air Act included several distinctive features. The Preamble to the Air Act clearly states

This act represents the implementation of the decisions made at the Stockholm Conference. Also, a notification related to Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules was also made in the year 2000 for the purpose of maintaining the ambient air quality standards with respect to noise.

Ambient air quality standards were established under the 1981 Act to combat the problems associated with air pollution. The Act provides means for the control and abatement of air pollution. The Act seeks to tackle air pollution by prohibiting the use of polluting fuels and substances, as well as by regulating equipment that promotes air pollution. Under the Act, pollution control is carried out in the establishment or operation of any industrial plant.

requires concurrence from the State Boards. The boards are also expected to test air in air pollution control areas, inspect pollution control equipment and manufacturing processes.

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for major pollutants were notified by the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) in April 1994. These are considered to be the levels of air quality required with an adequate margin of safety for the protection of public health, vegetation and property. , NAAQS sets specific standards for industrial, residential, rural and other sensitive areas. Industry-specific emission standards have also been developed for various industries such as iron and steel plants, cement plants, fertilizer plants, oil refineries and aluminum industries. The ambient quality standards prescribed in India are similar to those prevalent in many developed and developing countries.

In order to empower the Central and State Pollution Boards to deal with serious emergencies, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) No.

The Insolvency Act, 1987 was enacted. The Boards were authorized to take immediate measures to deal with such emergencies and to recover the expenses incurred from the offenders. The power to cancel consent for non-fulfillment of prescribed conditions has also been emphasized in the Air Act amendment.

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, framed in 1982, define the procedures for conduct of meetings of the Boards, powers of presiding officers, decision-making, quorum; The manner in which the records of the meeting etc. were to be established. They also prescribed the manner and purpose of taking the assistance of experts and the fees to be paid to them.

Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000

The objective of this act is to regulate and control noise from sources such as industrial activity, construction activity, generator sets, loud speakers, public address systems, music systems, horns of vehicles and other mechanical equipment. Prescribed ambient noise levels are to be complied with. Loudspeaker should not be used without obtaining written permission from the authority. If the noise level exceeds the ambient standards by 10 dB, a complaint can be lodged with the authority.

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

In the wake of the Bhopal gas tragedy, the Government of India enacted the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Existing laws prior to the enactment of the EPA essentially focused on specific pollutants (such as air and water). Through the enactment of the EPA, the need for a single authority with a lead role for environmental protection was met. It is in the form of an umbrella legislation designed to provide a framework for the Central Government to coordinate the activities of various Central and State authorities established under previous Acts. It is also in the form of an enabling legislation, which gives wide powers to the executive to enable the bureaucrats to make necessary rules and regulations.

The Act is a comprehensive legislation designed to provide a framework for coordination of the Central and State authorities established under the Water (Prevention and Control) Act, 1974 and the Air (Prevention and Control) Act, 1981. Under this Act, the Central Government is empowered to take necessary measures to protect and improve the quality of the environment by prescribing standards for emissions and discharges; regulating the location of industries; management of hazardous waste, and protection of public health and welfare.

From time to time the Central Government issues notification under EPA for protection of ecologically sensitive areas or issues guidelines for matters under EPA. Some of the notifications issued under this act are:

a) Environmental Impact Assessment of Development Projects Notification, (1994 and amended in 2006). As per this notification, all the projects listed under Schedule I require environmental clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). Projects falling under the unlicensed category of the new industrial policy also require clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests. All developmental projects, whether or not included in Schedule I, if located

In critical areas, approval from the MoEF will have to be obtained. Industrial projects with an investment of more than Rs 500 million will have to take the approval of the MoEF and further obtain an LOI (Letter of Intent) from the Ministry of Industry and an NOC (No Objection Certificate) from the SPCB and the State Forest Department, if the location involves forest land. Once the NOC is obtained, the LOI is converted into an industrial license by the state authority. The notification also laid down procedural requirements for setting up and operating new power plants. As per this notification, two-stage clearance is required for site-specific projects such as pithead thermal power plants and valley projects. Site clearance is given in the first stage and final environment clearance is given in the second stage. apubli

The hearing has been made mandatory for the projects covered by this notification. This is an important step in providing transparency and giving a greater role to local communities.

b) The Doon Valley Notification (1989), which prohibits setting up of industries consuming more than 24 metric tonnes (million tonnes) of coal/fuel per day in the Doon Valley.
c) Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (1991), which regulates activities in coastal areas. As per this notification, dumping of ash or any other waste is prohibited in the CRZ. Thermal power plants (only onshore facilities for transportation of raw materials, facilities for intake of cooling water and outfall for discharge of treated waste water/cooling water) require clearance from MoEF.
d) Complementing the above Acts is the Atomic Energy Act of 1982, which was introduced to deal with radioactive waste. In 1988, the Motor Vehicles Act was enacted to regulate vehicular traffic, besides ensuring proper packaging, labeling and transportation of hazardous waste. Various aspects of vehicular pollution have also been notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Mass emission norms were notified in 1990, which were made more stringent in 1996. These standards were again revised in 2000 and for the first time separate

Responsibilities were set for vehicle owners, manufacturers and enforcing agencies.

Some laws related to hazardous waste

There are many laws that directly or indirectly deal with hazardous waste. The relevant Acts are Factories Act, 1948, Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991,

Certain Notifications under the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 and the Environment Protection Act of 1986. A brief description of each of these is given below.

Factories Act, 1948 and its amendment in 1987

The Factories Act, 1948 was a post-independence legislation that clearly showed concern for the environment. The primary objective of the Act of 1948 is to ensure the welfare of workers not only in working conditions in factories but also in the benefits of their employment. While ensuring the safety and health of workers, the Act contributes to environmental protection. The Act contains a comprehensive list of 29 categories of industries involving hazardous processes, which are defined as any process or activity where, unless special care is taken, the raw materials or intermediates used therein or finished product, by-product, waste or effluent:

 Causes material harm to the health of persons engaged

 Result in pollution of the general environment

Public Liability Insurance Act (PLIA), 1991

The Act covers accidents related to hazardous substances and insurance coverage for these. Where death or injury occurs as a result of an accident, the Act makes the owner liable to provide relief as specified in the Schedule to the Act. The PLIA was amended in 1992, and authorized the central government to set up an Environmental Relief Fund to make relief payments.

National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995

The Act provides for strict liability for damages arising out of any accident occurring during the handling of any hazardous substance and provides for the establishment of a National Environment Tribunal for effective and expeditious disposal of cases arising out of such accidents. Establishment, with a view to providing relief and compensation for damages caused to persons, property and the environment and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. The applying claimant can also apply for immediate relief under the Public Liability Insurance Act.

Under EPA1986, MoEF has issued several notifications to deal with the problem of hazardous waste management. This includes:

The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989, which brought out a guide for manufacture, storage and import of hazardous chemicals and management of hazardous waste.

The Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998, were made along the parallel line for proper disposal, segregation, transportation etc. of infectious waste. Proper segregation and labeling of waste as specified. Installation of pollution control systems such as incinerators, autoclaves or microwaves and meeting prescribed limits of emissions were made mandatory. Guidelines were also given for the transportation of such waste along with the compliance of the prescribed time limit for setting up the pollution control system.

The Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Management) Rules, 2000, which aimed to enable municipalities to dispose of municipal solid waste in a scientific manner.

The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2000, a recent notification issued with a view to provide guidelines for import and export of hazardous waste in the country.

Socio-cultural sustainability

Population Growth and Sustainable Development

Urbanization and Sustainable Development

Industrial Growth and Sustainable Development

Global Warming: Threat to Sustainable Development

military conflict and nuclear war

Environment and Development Projects

Biotechnology: A Way To Sustainable Development

The unsustainable lifestyles of more than a billion people and the unacceptable levels of poverty experienced by another billion people are the root causes of today’s major environmental problems. If these two issues are addressed urgently and seriously, the road to Rio will lead us to a better shared future. Development that is not equitable will not be sustainable and there can be no better future for mankind unless there is a slightly better common present (Swaminathan, 1992).

Evolution should not be at the expense of future generations or threaten the existence of other species. In fact, we have taken the earth on lease from our descendants and hence we must administer and take care of it very carefully. Our environment is something that we have inherited and every generation is indebted to the generations to come. Einstein once said that two things are infinite – the universe and the stupidity of man. We can only hope that the latter does not prompt him to pollute his environment indiscriminately until he succumbs to his own folly. Gro Mortem Brundtland says, “If everyone does what they want in the short term, we’re all losers in the long term.”

Therefore, we must adopt a way of living that recognizes that the Earth has a limited supply of resources, that humans are a part of nature, and that they are not superior to her. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, “Earth is the need of every man.

provides enough to satisfy a man’s wants, but not a person’s greed.” Therefore to fulfill his responsibility to his children to ensure that

They have the same chance to enjoy themselves as we have, people need to present the challenge of sustainable development as an opportunity to be taken on and not a threat to be avoided.

“We adults must ask ourselves what is the use of everything we do

It doesn’t help the kids? Let us commit ourselves. We are grateful for every child”

Mother Teresa

During this century, there has been a profound change in the relationship between the human world and the planet that sustains it. Settled agriculture, diversion of waterways, extraction of minerals, release of heat and harmful gases into the atmosphere, commercial forestry and tribal manipulation are some examples of human interference with natural systems during development. Population explosion, industrialization, urbanization and green revolution have brought many changes in the quality of our environment (Dhaliwal et al., 1992). These changes in the environment have threatened the existence of human beings. In terms of income and output, the world will be far more prosperous in the next century but the environment could be far worse. Future generations will be worse off as a result of environmental degradation resulting from economic decisions made today. The scale of economic activity may not be sustainable in the face of increasing pressure on natural resources.

Sustainable development is development that lasts. The specific concern in this concept is that those who enjoy the fruits of economic growth today may make future generations worse off by over-depleting the Earth’s resources and polluting the environment.

Earth’s atmosphere. The term sustainable development was brought into common use by the World Commission on Environment and Development (Bruntland Commission) in its report Our Common Future (WCEP, 1987). The idea of sustaining the earth has proven to be a powerful metaphor in raising public awareness and focus on the need for better environmental stewardship. According to the Brundtland Commission, sustainable development is development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

To achieve sustainable development, we need nothing less than a global movement and a significant increase in political will and public pressure to persuade industry, governments and institutions to take responsibility for their actions. Sustainable development has two major concepts within it. Concepts of needs, especially the essential needs of the world’s poor, which should be given paramount priority and consideration of the limits imposed by technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet current and future needs (WCED, 1987) .

Sustainable development requires that the adverse impacts on the quality of air, water and other natural elements are minimized so that the overall integrity of the eco-system is maintained.

Sustainable development is a process of change in which resource exploitation, direction of investment, direction of technological development and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both present and future capacity to meet human needs and aspirations. It is a dynamic process aimed at meeting the needs of economic development for now and in the future, without compromising on the environment.

The concept of sustainable development received tremendous interest in June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, commonly known as the Earth Summit. The conference brought together more than 100 heads of state and scientific experts from around the world. The world focused on the impact of unregulated economic growth on the deteriorating global environment. In a landmark agreement, UNCED adopted Agenda 21, a multi-pronged, comprehensive plan designed to deliver a sustainable future. UNCED also established the Commission on Sustainable Development (CED), which is responsible for monitoring progress in implementing Agenda 21 (Trivedi et al., 1994).

21.3 POPULATION GROWTH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Man has been playing with nature since the beginning of civilization. However, its impact on the environment was not felt as the human population was very small. With the advent of agriculture and progress in the industrial sector, the human population began to increase tremendously. Sustainable capacity development is closely linked to the dynamics of population growth. From the beginning of the human species to the end of World War I, it took more than 10,000 generations to reach a world population of a little over two billion. But only in the last 45 years, it has grown from a little over 2 billion to 5.7 billion and in the coming 45 years it will be 9-10 billion.

Developed countries have a disproportionate impact on the global environment compared to developing countries. A child born in a country with high levels of material and energy use places a greater burden on the Earth’s resources than a child born in a poor country. For example, a child born in the United States will have 30 times more impact on the Earth’s environment during their lifetime than a child born in India (Gore, 1994). Thus, the rich people of the world

They have a responsibility to deal with their disproportionate influence.

The following facts speak volumes about the disastrous consequences of uncontrolled population growth.

At 5.7 billion, the global baby boom is dangerous. It will reach 6 billion by 1998. With an annual growth of 94 million, the world population is set to touch 8.5 billion by 2025 and 12.5 billion by 2050.

By 2025, the population ratio between the developed North and the developing South is projected to be 1:5.

About 54 percent of the global population growth is confined to South Asia and Africa.

Thirty percent of the developing world’s population lives on about one dollar a day. 62% of the world’s poor are in South Asia.

The richest fifth of the population controls 83 percent of the world’s wealth while the poorest fifth account for barely 1.4 percent of the global income cake. No wonder, an average person in the developed world consumes 12 times more

More than one energy in the poor South. About 52 percent of India’s population lives below the poverty line of less than Rs 110 per month.

The failure of the family planning program has been a major reason for India’s continuing backwardness. (The gains of economic growth are offset by population explosion. Therefore, in India we must adopt a rational, women-centred, welfare-o.)

Human oriented approach towards family planning if we really want to achieve substantial reduction in population growth rate. The draft National Population Policy was presented by a 10-member group, headed by Dr. M.S. The recommendations made by Swaminathan on May 21, 1994 are the latest, their main thrust being the decentralization of the family planning programme, to separate population planning from the political process and the establishment of an autonomous Population Commission on the lines of the Planning Commission or the Election Commission Can go The main merit of the recommendations is that the money should go directly to the Panchayats. Not only this, this program will provide employment to educated rural youth and present a glimpse of modernity in our villages.

Dr. M.S. Swaminathan has rightly said that the time has come to move away from “Think”.

From “Act locally” to “Think locally, act and plan and support nationally”. With the pride of place given to Panchayats, it is natural that the grassroots organizations prepare their own socio-demographic charters keeping in mind the concepts of gender equality, education for all, integrated health, housing, sanitation, nutritional security and employment. Should do

Family planning is more widely accepted in societies that provide their people with basic needs and services such as housing, health care, and education. This is true even in low-income countries such as Costa Rioa, Sri Lanka, Jamaica and Botswana. These countries have reduced their fertility rates through high levels of “social investment” in education, especially for women. What they spend on health and education is more than four times what they spend on the military.

For a happy and healthy tomorrow women have to be given strong support so that they can get their rightful place in the society. Increasing emphasis on girls’ education, increase in the age of marriage, new job opportunities for women and new legislation providing freedom and parallel rights to women should help bring about a qualitative change in the social order. But more than in urban India, we need to take a closer look at the condition of women in rural areas. Some of these basic ideas have been incorporated in the draft National Population Policy. Once we start getting nourished by common sense and common man’s wisdom, tackling the world’s toughest number game becomes easy.

Urbanization and Sustainable Development

Today 25 percent of India’s population i.e. 217 million people live in urban areas. On average, a quarter of this number live in slums. This figure is even higher in big cities. More than half of Bombay’s 100 lakh population live in slums. Calcutta has 5 lakh pavement dwellers who live, sleep, cook and defecate on the streets. Even a well-planned city like Chandigarh, which was built for 5 lakh people, which it should have reached by 2000, already has 7.7 lakh people living in it. About a quarter of them live in slums. By 2000, one-third of India’s population will live in urban areas. The number of cities with a population of more than one million (Class I cities) has increased from •216 in 1981 to 300 in 1991 (Anonymous, 1994).

The Industrial Revolution led to the growth of cities where people began to concentrate

Large scale and urbanization thus brought about profound social, economic and environmental changes. The overcrowding of population in big cities has given rise to an acute shortage of clean air. The atmosphere is badly polluted by the exhaust gases emitted by many factories, heating installations of plants and vehicles. The low quality fuel used in most vehicles produces large amounts of pollutants such as lead and sulfur dioxide. Oil refineries must therefore be persuaded to reduce the amount of lead in gasoline and vehicles must be designed to accommodate unleaded fuel. propel vehicles

Emission control devices like rock converters should be provided. Urbanization contributes to air, water and noise pollution to a great extent. Therefore, the development of smaller urban centers needs to make the wheel of progress more sustainable.

Industrial Growth and Sustainable Development

Industry has always been and will continue to be a major cause of economic development around the world. Economic development and sound environmental management are complementary aspects of the same agenda. Without adequate environmental protection, development would be stunted; Without development, environmental protection will collapse, while the primary objectives of the New Economic Policy are to accelerate industrial development, improve operational efficiency and competitiveness, increase exports, and induce more foreign investment. Inevitably, this will have both direct and transformative as well as positive and negative environmental consequences. The types of industries that grow rapidly determine the severity of pressure on natural resources and • the resulting environmental impacts. Irrespective of the nature of development, more indu

Sterilization means greater extraction of resources and, therefore, greater disposal of wastes.

In general, industries and industrial operations should be encouraged that are more efficient in terms of resource use, that generate less pollution and waste, that are based on the use of renewable rather than non-renewable resources, and that have no irreversible impact on human beings. Minimize advance effects. Health and Environment. There are 17 industries which have been declared most polluting – Sugar, Fertilizer, Cement, Fermentation and Distillery, Aluminium, Petro-chemical, Thermal Power, Caustic Soda, Oil Refinery, Tanneries, Copper Smelter, Zinc Smelter, Iron and Steel, Pulp and Paper, Dye and Dye Intermediates, Pesticides and Pharmaceuticals. The latest data released by the Ministry of Environment and Forests on March 30, 1993 shows that there are a total of 1629 units in the country which come under these.

categories. Of these, 805 have complied with the pollution control standards prescribed by the Ministry. 76 units have been shut down following action initiated by the State Pollution Control Board. Of the remaining 555 units that were set up before 1981, they are yet to comply with the standards.

Industries produce hazardous wastes. In 1984, approximately 325–375 million tons of hazardous waste were generated worldwide. If these harmful industrial wastes are left untreated, many environmental problems can arise. Rational Environment Metallurgical Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur has developed some low cost pollution abatement systems for small scale industries, effluent treatment and hazardous waste management Biotechnology has been used since. Polluters should be encouraged to set up common effluent treatment plants. Industry should be encouraged to use non-conventional energy resources Adequate amount of research and development efforts should be made to tet non-conventional energy resources.

Global Warming: Threat to Sustainable Development

Global warming is a major obstacle in the way of sustainable development. Environmental resources such as the atmosphere and water can be considered global public goods. Their conservation benefits not only the local population but also other countries: politicians and even ordinary people have expressed concern over global warming and its consequences. In the last 18,000 years, the world’s temperature has increased by only 4 °C. But since 1850 it has increased by 0.5 – l°C in the industrial era. If trends continue, global temperatures are expected to increase by 2–5 °C by the middle of the next century (Dhaliwal and Kler, 1995). ‘Greenhouse gases are the primary cause of global warming. Developed countries are the major contributors of greenhouse gases. According to one view, climate change, due to greenhouse gases, affects agriculture and forestry the most, but does no harm to industry. Since the income of developed countries comes mostly from industry, they do not suffer as much loss from global warming, while developing countries, which depend on agriculture, are at a disadvantage. But in reality global warming is an externality in which the polluters also suffer.

Both developed and developing countries contribute to greenhouse gases. But developed countries are in a strong position to effectively reduce emissions because they have high levels of per capita fossil fuel consumption. climate change implementation

Therefore, the convention adopted at the Rio conference is based on the initiatives to be taken by the developed countries in the coming years. In turn, this depends on the political consensus that developed countries have been able to achieve on the issue. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have a very high global warming potential, but fortunately they will be phased out fairly rapidly in two decades with the implementation of the Montreal Protocol.

It is clear that if satisfactory progress is to be made in phasing out greenhouse gases, lifestyles must change urgently. This is not necessarily a decline in living standards or a sacrifice of amenities and services that most prosperous nations enjoy. But some changes will be necessary. For example, greater use of public transport or renewable energy technologies and energy efficient measures.

implementation, many of which are possible but are delayed as a result of institutional, cost-related and height-related constraints. Without leadership from the world’s biggest polluters, it is unlikely that any progress will be made in limiting emissions worldwide.

On the other hand, if developing countries are not prepared for this possibility, they are at a great disadvantage. Therefore, governments must quickly change their perception and establish partnerships with centers of excellence and expertise outside governments. Institutions of higher education in developed countries have a culture and tradition of policy research and have a prominent voice in decision making. have taken a similar stance

To be followed in developing countries. India should take the lead in this regard, as it not only has the infrastructure for meaningful research, but also has a very important role to play in global discourse as a major developing country.

military conflict and nuclear war

Among the threats facing the environment, the potential for nuclear war or military conflict involving weapons of mass destruction is undoubtedly the greatest. Certain aspects of peace and security issues directly impact on the concept of sustainable development. Arms competition and armed conflict pose major obstacles to sustainable development. They lay heavy claims on scarce material resources. They undo the human resources and money that could be used under the collapse of environmental support systems, the poverty and under-development that in combination contribute to so much of contemporary political insecurity.

Nuclear war is a threat to civilization. It has been officially discovered by scientists that smoke and dust released into the atmosphere by nuclear war can absorb enough solar radiation to stay aloft for some time, preventing sunlight from reaching Earth’s surface This could lead to widespread and prolonged cooling of land areas. , This would have serious implications for plant life in general and agriculture in particular, disrupting the production of food to sustain the survivors of the war. Nuclear war can neither be won nor fought. After this, there will be no difference between the so-called winner and the loser. Biological warfare could release new agents of disease that would prove difficult to control.

The absence of war is not peace, nor does it necessarily provide the conditions for sustainable development. Competitive arms race ~ creates insecurity between nations through a spiral of mutual fear. Nations need to mobilize resources to combat environmental degradation and widespread poverty. By misdirecting scarce resources, the arms race further contributes to insecurity. Therefore, nations must seek security through cooperation, compromise, and mutual restraint. Since it is often uncertainty and insecurity that prompt international conflict. It is extremely important that governments become aware of impending environmental stress, before the damage actually threatens core national interests.

Environment and Development Projects

Every development project, especially large infrastructural projects like dams, railways, highways etc., has an environmental and wider social, economic and cultural impact. The pros and cons of development projects must be weighed against the environment. While undertaking such a project, it should be seen that the national objectives of both environment as well as development should be met in the best possible manner.

Development projects like dams, roads and railway lines cause development as well as environmental destruction. Dams pose a risk of flooding and waterlogging and also disrupt existing drainage systems. Inland fisheries projects aimed at maximizing immediate profits may disturb the ecological balance. Large forest areas have to be submerged to build a dam. Thousands of families have to be displaced and thousands of old trees have to be cut for such projects. In some cases, the social, economic and environmental costs are unacceptably high. Some railway and highway projects cause a huge increase in noise and air pollution.

Development at the cost of greenery and ecology cannot be called sustainable development. Therefore, in order to achieve sustainable development, the construction of such projects must keep pace with the environmental requirements. It must be ensured that development projects are properly sited so as to minimize their adverse environmental consequences. In fact, this is the only basis for sustainable development.

Biotechnology: A Way to Sustainable Development

Uncontrolled mechanization, excessive exploitation of natural resources, deforestation and extensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture have brought about many changes in various components of the environment. Pesticide consumption in India increased from 12,048 tonnes in 1965–66 to 80,000 tonnes in 1991, and is expected to reach 100,000 tonnes by the year 2000. Excessive use of pesticides has resulted in multiplication of insects. More than 200 major pests attack crops and some of them have developed resistance to insecticides. Harmless and helpful insects and birds are often killed indiscriminately. Herbs are used to suppress the activity of microorganisms.

cries. The total consumption of nutrients in the form of fertilizers has increased from about 65 thousand tonnes in 1951-52 to 11.4 million tonnes in 1990-91 and the consumption is estimated to be about 180 million tonnes by the end of the century. Intensive use of nitrogenous fertilizers has increased the level

of nitrates in groundwater. Recent studies have linked human cancer with nitrate uptake. Some phosphorus also enters surface water by runoff from areas of high concentration.

The alarming increase in population has made it necessary to increase the production of agricultural products. Since the area under cultivation is more or less inelastic, this growth has to be achieved by harvesting the maximum from the available land resources. Biotechnology offers new technologies to increase the productivity, profitability and sustainability of our agricultural systems in comparison to synthetic pesticides and fertilizers. Microorganisms are the workhorses of biotechnology and today they provide solutions to many man-made problems. Biotechnological answers are rapidly emerging not only to detoxify the environment through bioremediation but also to enhance the use of our natural resources by bioconversion and application of probiotics. Four major categories of biotechnology applications in solving environmental problems include environmental monitoring, bioremediation, environmental protection through safer bio-alternatives, and waste minimization (Jayaraman, 1993).

Use of eco-friendly biopesticides in controlling agricultural pests should be adopted as a step towards sustainable development. -Biopesticides are biological control agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and insects that work in plants for pest control. These are much safer than their toxic chemical counterparts. They are persistent and give permanent control and they do not accumulate in the food chain. Resistance to organic pesticides does not develop very easily.

Given the concern for environmental pollution and sustainable agriculture, the interest in the integrated use of organic manures and organic fertilizers should be renewed. Legume green manures offer great potential as a source of organic matter and nitrogen for crops. The development of biofertilizers as an alternative to chemical fertilizers is an important area of environmental protection and a way of sustainable development. Biofertilizers are small organisms (nitrogen-fixing bacteria, algae, and fungi) that fix atmospheric nitrogen in plants or soil to supply the nitrogenous nutrients needed for plant growth. They improve soil fertility after harvesting and do not leave residual toxicity. Therefore, by adopting eco-friendly practices, we can contribute towards sustainable development.

Nature Management and Sustainable Development

The future and well-being of a nation depends on sustainable development. It is a process of social and economic development, betterment that meets the needs and values of all interest groups without closing out future options. For this, we must ensure that the environment from which we derive our sustenance does not exceed its carrying capacity for the present and future generations of that deity.

The pressure on the environment and natural resources has been increasing progressively over the years, the alarming consequences of which are becoming evident in increasing proportion. These result in denial of the benefits of development and worsen the quality of life of the poor who are directly dependent on natural resources. It is in this context that we need a renewed thrust towards conservation and sustainable development. We can meet the challenges of sustainable development by redirecting the thrust of our developmental process to meet the basic needs of our people through judicious and sustainable use of our natural resources. Conservation, which covers a wide range of concerns and activities, is a key element of policy for sustainable development. Development requires the use and modification of natural resources,

More than 17 percent of the land in India is covered by forests and more than 54,000 km2 of wetlands are under protection. Its living resources include 45,000 species of plants, about 370 mammals, 1200 birds, 60,000 insects, 180 amphibians, 1700 fish and 400 reptiles. India has more than 75 percent of the 425 families of flowering plants in the world. It has 421 wildlife sanctuaries and 66 national parks which constitute 4 per cent of its total area (Punita, 1993). However, over-exploitation of resources has exposed our biodiversity to various ecological threats.

We must reinforce our traditional ethos and build a conservation society living in harmony with nature and making frugal and efficient use of resources guided by the best available scientific knowledge to ensure sustainable development. We must control future degradation of land, water and air that form our life support system and take steps for restoration of ecologically degraded areas and environmental improvement in our rural and urban settlements. Adoption of research, development and v

Iron compatible technology should be encouraged and use of modern tools of science and technology for conservation, bridging the wide gap in supply and demand.

Along with this, control and monitoring of natural resources should be promoted. Sustainable use of forests and other ecosystems should be pioneered that will allow the species to survive despite commercial activities.

Furthermore, in order to achieve sustainable development, people need to change their lifestyle and unsustainable habits of waste. If we want to pass on to future generations the opportunities in life to enjoy ourselves as we please, this may no longer be an option. There must be a rapid change in the consumption patterns of both the rich and the poor in order to achieve sustainable development. The pressure on the resources that will be needed in the future is exacerbated by inequality through wastage and overuse and the destruction of non-renewable resources by the affluent and overuse and destruction of renewable resources by the poor.

Industrialized countries, with less than a quarter of the world’s population, consume four-fifths of their natural resources and generate about three-quarters of the total waste produced each year. On the other hand, poor women get up before dawn, walk miles to reach home

More and more dwindling forests to cut and bundle wood, and then to carry their heavy loads ten kilometers to the nearest town, to get half a meal a day. So in their desperate attempt to survive today, people are forced to forgo their tomorrow and overuse their environment.

Furthermore, the energy consumption of the poor is not environmentally friendly, for example, a woman who cooks in a clay pot over an open fire uses perhaps eight times as much energy as an affluent neighbor with a gas stove and aluminum utensils. uses. The poor who light their homes with kerosene lamps get 1/50th the light of a 100-watt electric bulb, but use the same amount of energy. A global strategy is therefore needed to tackle both extreme affluence and widespread poverty because there can be no real sustainable development without greater equality and respect for human rights.

people’s participation

People’s participation in programs for environmental improvement and for integrating environmental concerns in the planning and implementation of development programs should be ensured. ‘Environmental consciousness’ should be created through education and mass awareness programmes. To implement international, national and local policies to fully develop the energies and talents of children and youth and to achieve sustainable human development The family and its immediate community are the most logical way to meet the needs of children and youth The function is the ~ point. Village level institutions should be designed to ensure community participation in the management of environmental resources (Desh Bandhu and 1990).

Sustainable development is not the task of the government alone, but it is up to each member of the society to contribute in the form of sophisticated and sustainable habits, for example, using public transport, recycling waste, turning off lights or Do AC, etc. A guilty conscience cannot be appeased by the excuse that no individual action can make a meaningful contribution to solving such huge problems. To achieve sustainable development, we have to bring a change in our lifestyle. The long-term goal should be for people to pass all their actions through a green quality filter, just as they make decisions today on financial, health, social and legal considerations, or as the United States-based World Watch Institute puts it, “When most people look at a large automobile and think first about the air pollution it causes, rather than the social status it conveys, environmental ethics may have been acquired.”

Accepting filth and filth as a part of daily life has become a trend on the part of the common man responsible for our cities being dirty. Nor is there any public awareness or participation, which is essential for sustainable development of cities. What partnerships can achieve can be seen in the success of Xnora International in Madras. Through a simple waste collection program called Civic Xnora, the voluntary organization covers 20 percent of the city (Anonymous, 1994a).

Women have an important role to play in solving environmental problems. However, despite international targets of 30 percent of women in leadership positions by 1995 and equal representation by men and women by 2000, very few women have been involved in decision-making regarding policies, programs or funding for the environment (Ress , 1992).

Therefore, to achieve sustainable development, major changes have to be brought in the thinking of the people. Sustainable societies must understand and act on the following principles:

I must recognize that ea

have a limited supply of non-renewable resources

I must restrict my choices within the limits set by the supply of natural resources by using conservation, recycling and renewable resources

It should cooperate with nature instead of trying to overcome it

It should be realized that all actions have hidden effects which have to be determined while doing the cost-benefit analysis.

or should go

It should reduce waste and reduce pollution

It should emphasize individual responsibility and actions to achieve a sustainable future

Sustainable Development: Future Perspectives

The future of sustainable development is closely linked to environmental science. Rarely has an academic subject become such a major issue in the public consciousness as the environment. Within a few years, environmental science has grown from a relatively obscure branch of science to a subject of international importance. education,

Business, politics, law, agriculture, engineering, medicine, public health and even international affairs are all affected by the sudden surge of ecological and environmental concern. It is absolutely essential for humanity to put environmental considerations first in the management of business, industry and agriculture. It is imperative for the people of the world to control population growth more effectively before human overcrowding becomes unmanageable. Anything less than a major reconfiguration of lifestyles would be enough to alert to total environmental destruction. It was the global concern for the protection of the environment that led to the largest government conference on the planet. The Earth Summit, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on June 3–14, 1992, attended by delegates from 178 countries, including 103 heads of state from both developing and developed countries. The conference adopted three landmark agreements that would go a long way in ensuring sustainable development with minimum disturbance to the ecosystem in the future (Anonymous, 1992a).

(i) Agenda 21. It is a non-binding action plan on the global environment and development, and includes more than 100 program areas ranging from poverty alleviation and strengthening the role of different sectors of civil society to protect the environment, soil, water and environment To do. Mountains of the planet. Agenda 21 represents the first global action plan aimed at promoting sustainable development. It reflects the development priorities of 178 developing and donor countries in a way that no other document has ever done. In fact, it is the first attempt to define a framework for action where the interrelated issues of economy, environment, poverty and development are recognised.

(ii) Framework Convention on Climate Change. The ultimate objective of this convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such levels must be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to naturally adapt to climate change, ensure that food production is not threatened and support economic development. To be able to move forward in a sustainable manner. Most of the governments present in Rio signed the climate convention, with the notable exception being Malaysia, which called the convention “meaningless” due to the lack of binding targets for greenhouse reductions.

(iii) Convention on Biological Diversity. The purpose of this convention is to protect

Biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. The convention is more responsive to the aspirations of developing countries, in particular the right to compensation for damage to biological diversity and the right to share in the benefits of biotechnology developed from genetic material. These points deterred the United States from signing the treaty, but 153 other countries signed, including all other developed nations. This treaty has come into effect from 30 December 1993.

The negotiators of the Earth Summit agreed on the need for a United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development. The commission is expected to be a high-level entity with a range of independent powers, along the lines of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. The Commission will act as a world watchdog to ensure that countries are meeting the promises made at the Earth Summit, in particular those laid out in Agenda 21, meeting the needs of global economic development with the protection of the environment. Conference outline to do. The 47th United Nations General Assembly formally established the commission.

Agenda 21 and the Conventions on Biodiversity and Climate Change are considered passports to a better common future for mankind. However, the following five areas require priority attention if we are to achieve the goals that indicate

Editing the organization of the summit (Swaminathan, 1992):

(i) Population. Population control and achieving a balance between human population and natural resources is absolutely essential for sustainable progress in the quality of life. Education and economic opportunities for women, reduction of infant mortality and care of the girl child must be given top priority for family planning programs to be successful.

(ii) Poverty. About 82.7 percent of global income goes to about 20 percent of the world’s population and only 1.4 percent of global income goes to the poorest Arabs. A large part of the income of the poor is spent on the purchase of food. Concurrent focus on food production, distribution and income generation to achieve nutritional security

No need to give. To convert the goal of food for all into reality, the policy of employment for all is very necessary. In India, around 100 million new jobs have to be created by 2000 AD, if we want to ensure access to food to every citizen. financial need

Rights have to be linked to ecological responsibilities at every level.

(iii) Pollution. Controlling and eliminating all forms of air, water and soil pollution requires immediate attention if sustainable food security is to be achieved. Environmental cleanliness requires a lot of priority from the citizen as well as the government.

(iv) Safety of life-support systems. Protection of land, water, fauna, flora and environment should be the joint responsibility of the people and the government. The participation of local people in the management of natural resources is essential to promote sustainable progress in food production.

(v) Public policy and action. Public policy going green is essential for both food security and poverty alleviation. It must be ensured that technology, training and business adapt to the environment.

Ecology, Development and Women

women and environment

women and development

Women and Development

It is difficult to define where the ‘environment’ begins or ends for women in developing countries. as child-bearers, family caregivers and consumers; as collectors and users of food-products, fuel and water; as field, forest, factory and

Office workers, women are the primary managers, and often custodians of natural resources. Women as activists and leaders are involved in campaigns to promote environmental awareness and conservation.

Women’s work is generally underestimated

Women’s work is generally underestimated. As a result, women constitute a disproportionate number of the poorest groups of people and are victims of hunger, illiteracy, poor health, scarce social and technical services, inadequate population policies, and other consequences of poverty. Furthermore, women’s participation and influence remain inadequately represented in decision-making areas related to environmental and development issues affecting their quality of life.

Women have to exploit natural resources due to poverty

Because of their daily tasks in caring for the family and community, women in developing countries are exposed to and affected by their environment. Due to poverty, women have to exploit natural resources instead of conserving them in their daily activities. Similarly, environmental degradation limits women’s ability to overcome poverty.

The Day for Women was based on the belief that improvement in the economic status of women would automatically result from the expansion and diffusion of the development process. Yet, by the end of the decade, it was becoming clear that growth was the problem. Inadequate and inadequate ‘participation’ in ‘development’ was not the reason for the increasing underdevelopment of women. Rather, it was their imposed but asymmetric participation, whereby they bore the costs but were deprived of the benefits that were attributable. The displacement of women from productive activity by the expansion of development was primarily rooted in the manner in which development projects were appropriated to destroy the natural resource base for the production of sustenance and survival. It destroyed women’s productivity by removing land, water and forests from their management and control, as well as through ecological destruction of soil, water and vegetation systems, thereby impairing the productivity and renewableness of nature. While gender subordination and patriarchy are the oldest oppressions, they have taken on newer and more violent forms through the project of development, reductionist minds attributing roles and forms of power to women, all non-Western people, and even Western male-oriented concepts. does. Nature provides ‘deficit’ to all three, and requires ‘development’. Diversity in the context of ugliness (increasing sexist supremacy) and nature’s degradation (deepening ecological crises), and unity and harmony in diversity, have become epistemologically unattainable, but nature has shrunk. The South’s poverty crisis stems from growing scarcity of water, food, fodder and fuel, coupled with increasing malnourishment and ecological destruction. This scourge of poverty affects women the most, first because they are the poorest of the poor, and then because, along with nature, they are the primary conductors of society.

In recent times, rapid development activities have lost touch with our ancient tradition and wisdom in protecting the natural ecological balance. Ecological imbalance due to developmental activities using locally available natural resources, forestry, agriculture and industrial technology based on the old model. The pressure of population and the increasing demand for resources and poverty that directly depend on natural resources for their existence have also taken a toll on the environment. The development of Third World societies has been particularly negative.

Impact on the status of poor women in both rural and urban content. As the household becomes poorer and employment becomes more difficult, the more

The wounds often become more and more weak.

un deca

women play many roles

Women play many roles in the family, community and economy. Women can produce food and income. There are natural links between the daily tasks involved in fulfilling these roles and the natural and human resource environment. They are the main producers of food for domestic consumption. They are the main drawers and carriers of water. They produce almost all fuel-wood for domestic use. In urban areas, shelter, sanitation, potable water, and other social services are important activities for women.

Women and men differ in their perceptions of their environment and its appropriate or potential uses:

For example, women may see the local forest as a source of food, fuel and medicine for domestic use, while men may see the value of the local forest as the sale of felled trees in the market. Additionally, because women are often dependent on free items such as water, fuel wood, and fodder, they have a special advantage.

Interested in environmental protection and rehabilitation. The environmental knowledge acquired by many women is both useful and detailed. Close daily contact exposes women to the properties and uses of the natural environment more than men

Disease and drought resistant crops and tree varieties, efficient fuel wood and medicinal plants. A survey in Sierra Leone showed that women could identify 31 different forest products while men were able to identify only one. The women thus represent a valuable information source on the local environment.

Women are not just resource managers. They are also victims of environmental mismanagement and

Contributing to environmental degradation. Where the resource base is shrinking or diminishing, women will have to search further and longer for fuel and water. It is women who are easily marginalized in unproductive land. The increased time and labor burden often manifested in the form of stress, poor health and malnutrition. Environmental protection and remediation projects with specific social objectives often fail to recognize the deferred needs of women and men; As a result, projects are planned with unequal benefits going to both. While it is clear that women in developing countries are often victims and agents of environmental degradation, it is important to balance this approach with the recognition that women are central to resource management and are participating in ecology movements in many countries and leading them. An example of grassroots environmental activism by women is the Chipko movement in India.

The movement began with deforestation by a commercial species, Eucalyptus, as a response to deforestation of the natural forest. Indigenous forests provided food, fuel, fodder, household utensils, dyes, medicinal substances, and income-generating products. The replacement by the single-space significantly affected the ability of rural women to maintain a subsistence household. As well as women’s grassroots activities, there are some examples of donor-sponsored resource projects that have been enhanced by women’s participation in planning design and implementation.

The Andhra Pradesh Social Forestry Project in India indicates that initiatives to address women’s needs and aspirations have yielded direct benefits to women and their communities and enhanced overall project success. The process of participation of women, both as agents and beneficiaries, brings many benefits. Such benefits include raising the economic status and self-esteem of women.

Small-scale local enterprises (soil, fuel and water conservation, seed selection waste recycling, local exchange of indigenous knowledge) can benefit from new income opportunities. Material benefits extend to the welfare of the family and community such as increased food security, child nutrition, health and education. Women’s participation in resource decision-making directly contributes to the conservation and rehabilitation of the environment.

Women and Natural Resources: Biomass plays an important role in meeting the daily survival needs of the vast majority of rural households in the country: food, fish, fuel (firewood, crop waste and cowdung, organic manure, green mouth and forest Litter), building materials (wood and thatch) and medicines (herbs) are all different forms of biomass. Unfortunately industrialization and urbanization and advancement of cash economy have greatly affected the biomass base of the country. The destruction of biomass with deforestation and vegetation and its transformation away from rural and domestic needs and towards urban and industrial needs is having a major impact on the lives of all those who live in non-monetized biomass-based subsistence economies. But not only in these cultures, but in all rural cultures, women face the greatest danger.

With the growing awareness of energy and the environment. Problems Several efforts have been made by the government in recent years. Promotion of new technologies like biogas plant, fuel wood, tree plantation, smokeless chulha, hand pump etc. They can reduce the distress of rural life, improve health and meet basic household needs.

Can fulfill nights.

Drinking water: Carrying water is another extremely laborious activity done by women and consumes a lot of their time. Available information indicates that women spend long hours and travel long distances, especially in mountainous areas in arid and semi-arid parts of the country. In villages in Karnataka, a study shows that it ranges from one to 1.4 hours a day per household, while in villages in eastern Uttar Pradesh it ranges from one to 3.9 hours a day on average. Veena Majumdar, director of the Center for the Study of Women’s Development in New Delhi, explains: “Irrigation

Most schemes for rural development receive high priority, but little attention is paid to the supply of water for drinking and washing.” Little effort has been made to integrate irrigation and domestic water supply schemes. Lack of clean drinking water affects the health of children the most. But among adults, women are more vulnerable to the dangers of polluted water than men.

Female and male migration: Male migration, a common phenomenon in large parts of rural India, is a significant factor affecting the workload of women. Several factors have led to an increase in migration in search of job opportunities: population growth, increasing pressure on land, and a technological change in agriculture that has led to landlessness. Migration of agricultural laborers from Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh

It now occurs on a large scale in Punjab. Similarly, in the fishing villages of Kanyakumari district, men have started migrating more and more. The destruction of forests and pastures has put immense pressure on tribal and nomadic people, leaving them landless and forcing them to migrate in search of jobs. ILO’s Andrea Menetti Singh says life can be difficult for women left behind in the village. “If oral tradition is any indication folk songs, for example, the emotional price that women pay for their husbands’ migration is enormous,” says Singh. Divorce rates among emigrants are high, meaning that the proportion of women abandoned after emigration may be significantly higher. Surveys conducted in Bombay slums also showed that men who migrated without their families are more likely to have sexually transmitted diseases, which means they are more likely to transmit these diseases to their wives on home visits. are doing.

Household fuel: Collecting fuel is an important daily task for most rural women. In Pura, to collect 1.74 tonnes of firewood every year, each firewood gathering household spends an average of 2.51 hours per day, making 172 trips in a year and each round of about 8.54 km. Madhura Swaminathan, in a study of a Himalayan rural wing in Uttar Pradesh’s Chamoli district, reports that one or more members of each household walk 5 km uphill daily and spend six to 10 hours at work. The average daily time spent by each household is 7.2 hours. Only women go to collect wood in 75 percent of the houses.

Usually three rounds are done every four days although many women go daily.

Swaminathan comments on the life of the women in these villages: “Leaving their homes at dawn after a day of about eight hours, they return to the village with their loads of wood. What is the normal working day all over the world? day’s work. On returning home, the women engaged in their household chores which included herding cattle. And finally they worked for a few hours on the land. Three meals a day are prepared in both the villages. Men from the area Due to heavy migration of women, women are also being forced to devote more and more time to agriculture.

Head Loaders: It is common to see hundreds of exhausted women carrying heavy bundles of wood early in the morning at Ranchi Railway Station. For these women, mostly tribal, it is only part of two days of grueling work. An increasing number of Adivasis and other poor people are taking to unauthorized work of cutting and selling firewood. It is an important source of income for poor people. The Xavier Institute of Social Studies has published a striking report on Headholders in Ranchi by T. Bhadur and V. Swain. A study of 170 households spread across nine villages reveals that headloading has emerged as an important occupation only in the last 15 to 18 years.

A two-day cycle: Ranchi firewood sellers, mainly tribal women, usually start their day at 2 a.m. as they have to do household chores before walking 8 km to 10 km to the surrounding forests for charcoal. has to be completed. Seven or eight years ago, the forests were just a kilometer or two away. The wood is sold in the nearest city, Ranchi. To reach the market early, women have to leave their villages the previous evening by train or bus and spend the night at the railway station. Each woman can carry a maximum load of 20 kg, which is sold for Rs 100. 5.50 to Rs. 6.50. As soon as they return, the work starts again. It is possible that at least 2 million to 3 million people are doing headloading today, making headloading the largest source of employment in India’s energy sector. Studies show that the vast majority of headloaders are women. collect firewood

Approaching is dangerous for headloaders and often means negotiating rough terrain. Moreover, no medical facilities are provided to these poor people and any disease is a

liability for them. Women are malnourished in most of the busy areas. Children of headloaders are often neglected. They often do not recover even during illness. In conditions of extreme poverty, head hauling is the only available occupation. For example, in Bihar’s Palamu district, where the incidence of bonded labor is high, bonded laborers often do head-lifting because it is the only activity that can earn them some cash: rehabilitated bonded laborers have also started head-lifting. Is done. To deter headloaders, a toll system has been introduced in some states. Girnar forests are surrounded by several tool stations; Headloaders have to pay a toll of 10 paise for every headload. Forest officials in Madhya Pradesh considered Sagarei’s suggestion that the forest department itself cut wood and auction it to headloaders. Forest officials argue that they cut trees in a scientific manner according to the rules of forestry, but experience shows that corruption often prevents this from happening.

Some solutions :- Worst thing a

1The thing about headloading is that there is no real policy. Various solutions have been suggested which are listed below:

To remove mistrust, cooperative societies of tribals and forest department will be established.
Alternative employment may be provided to the headloaders. Women could make handicrafts and their products could be bought by the forest department and in return wood was given at subsidized rates.
Headloaders can do plantation themselves

Women and Development :- There was increasing awareness of widespread discrimination against women, which was being given a strong voice in the women’s movement. In 1975 in Mexico, the International Women’s Year conference concluded that:

(a) In no country were women being integrated equally into the economy or the decision-making system.

(b) that there was a tendency to favor men at the expense of women in development efforts. Another concern expressed was that modernization programs and development had

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The condition of women really worsened:

(a) It displaced women from traditional roles, and thus from their traditional sources of power and status.

(b) It had widened the gap between the incomes of men and women.

(c) The combined effect of development has actually increased the dependency of women.

‘Social’ Aspects of Development:

New institutions that would be more responsive to the needs of women were considered necessary. Women were to be included in the development process as both participants and beneficiaries.

Thus, there was a rapid growth of women’s bureaus and directorates in many Third World countries.

Women’s economic participation and contribution was invisible.
In many countries, the introduction of technologies had contributed to a small male sector, while women were left in a labor intensive ‘backward’ sector.

It all points in one direction. Women have to be integrated in the development process. The belief that more enlightened planning would remove barriers to women’s participation. subsequent integration efforts

(a) were conditioned by men’s acceptance of women’s participation in an institutional structure already controlled by men.

(b) with the aim of providing women access to skills and material resources already provided to men in order to increase their cash earnings. The belief that the benefits of development can be redistributed through market participation.

(c) Since most of women’s labor was already allocated to unpaid household production, the focus shifted to ancillary activities or additional activities.

The relationship between two areas of women’s contribution to the economy is examined

In the context of only a complementary SDOL rather than a dependency.

The two main goals of ‘Integration of Women in Development’ can be seen as:

(a) to increase the welfare of women;

(b) To utilize the hitherto untapped labor force and human resources for national development.

This approach essentially translated into three types of strategies:-

Welfare Oriented Strategies,
Equity Oriented Strategies,
Anti-poverty strategies.

The introduction of schemes suited to women’s child rearing and domestic responsibilities was important. Home-based income generation opportunities were another aspect of this approach.

Thus direct programs to increase the productivity of female labor and direct participation of women in the market are seen as remedial measures. The provision of direct inputs to facilitate women’s entry into the market, such as loans on educational opportunities, has been a key feature of enabling them to compete with men in the job market. Vocational training programs to provide marketable skills to women became a major trend in development plans.

Human Health and Environment

In order to protect equality between present and future generations, the current generation is protected from violations of planetary boundaries (such as climate change and biodiversity loss).

Primary prevention of damage) is essential to prevent disease, injury and death for future generations.

Human beings are components of an intricate web of life. Because of the ongoing interactions between humans and the environment, our health is largely determined by the quality of the ecosystems in which we live. The functioning of ecosystems is also determined in large part by human activity. In short, there is a close relationship between environment and health.

In this module we have given some examples of ways in which human health is determined by the natural environment and given examples of causes of disease related to environment and how it can be controlled at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. We have also considered how to reduce

Unequal distribution of the environmental burden of disease. While the task may seem daunting, especially given the growing global impacts of anthropogenic environmental change, it is important to remember that there are many solutions within reach. We can address the drivers of environmental change by redefining prosperity to focus on health and well-being for all, by sustainable and equitable patterns of consumption, and by respecting the integrity of natural systems.

In 1800, the average life expectancy globally was about 30 years; Two centuries later it was 66 years. In the same period, the global population increased from one billion to seven billion.

Much progress in population health stems from technological mastery of the relationship between humans and the natural environment. For example, with technology and fossil fuels we have created an infrastructure to bring clean drinking water to billions of people, systems to water, fertilize, harvest and transport food to feed them, and vector-borne transmission Chemical pesticides have been invented to reduce. Disease.

However, technological advances have also created new threats to human health, including chemical pollution, nuclear radiation, and climate change. The health burden of these hazards is distributed unequally between and within populations. In this module we will explore the physical, chemical and biological components of environmental health and the evidence linking human health directly and indirectly to the natural environment.

environmental determinants of health

There are many factors that together determine the health of individuals and communities. For the most part, whether a person will live a long and healthy life, or suffer early illness, disability, or death, is determined by their genetic makeup and their environment.

Our genetic makeup, our age and our sex are relatively fixed. However, where we live, the state of our environment, our income and education levels, and our relationships with friends and family have a substantial impact on health, and are largely the result of policies or practices that modify can go. These are called ‘social’ determinants of health.

The diagram below depicts the social determinants of health. The center of the circle represents non-modifiable determinants of health such as genetics, age and gender. Each ring outside the center represents a type of social, or transformative, aspect of health. Lifestyle choices include a person’s diet, exercise, smoking and drinking habits. Big issues include the types of jobs available and how socially integrated we are. But the widest range of factors are environmental, ranging from unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation or hygiene to indoor and outdoor pollution, workplace hazards, industrial accidents, automobile accidents, or poor natural resource management.

Surprisingly, access to health care services often has less impact on health than the environment. For this reason, a well-developed system of health care has less impact on human health, longevity, and well-being than a robust, resilient natural and physical environment. The health of our natural environment, and the quality of the larger ecosystem that supports all life, determines how healthy we can be.

Traditionally, environmental hazards to human health have been classified as biological (eg germs, malaria), chemical (eg toxic substances) or physical (eg radiation).

Physical hazards are naturally occurring processes that pose a threat to human health. Examples include ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) that damages DNA, or natural events such as volcanoes, earthquakes, tornadoes, landslides, or droughts.

Biological hazards are interactions between organisms, including the transfer or transmission of viruses, bacteria, or parasites that cause disease. These are also natural processes.

Chemical hazards may be naturally occurring (i.e. heavy metals such as lead or mercury are compounds in foods that cause allergic reactions in humans) or may be man-made. As chemical use has increased in industrialized societies, so have chemical-related diseases, including cancer, asthma, birth defects, developmental disabilities, autism, endometriosis, and infertility.

Children are especially sensitive to biological, chemical and physical hazards.

are sensitive; The World Health Organization estimates that about a third of the 6.6 million deaths in children under the age of 5 each year are linked to environmental causes, including diarrheal disease and malaria. release of thousands of new

The amicals have coincided with rapidly increasing incidences of childhood asthma, obesity, diabetes, attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) and birth defects since the 1950s. Rowing scientific evidence links the incidence of these diseases to environmental toxins. Even at low levels, chemicals can disrupt bodily systems and cause disease: disrupt hormones or sexual development and cause cancer.

The short film Environment, Health and You presents a historical overview of environmental health and the interrelationships between air, water, soil, food production and distribution, chemicals, population, climate change and policy. Although the United States

The main sources of mercury pollution include coal emissions from plant emissions, mercury cell chlor-alkali processing facilities, artisanal and industrial gold mining.

The dumped mercury pollutes the global environment, affecting water bodies and the organisms living in them. The mercury contaminating water and moist soil will turn into highly toxic organic mercury. Even small amounts of this substance will damage the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Organic mercury also accumulates in the bodies of exposed animals.

Health care is a major source of mercury pollution. fluorescent lamp, thermometer, dental filling; waste treatment and incineration of mercury-containing products; and cremation. Many instruments used in hospitals, health care facilities, and laboratories contain mercury. The substance is commonly found in thermometers and blood pressure measuring instruments. tools used

There may also be mercury in construction and in household items such as thermostats, pressure gauges, and switches. Mercury can escape from these and other similar products, as no device is 100% fail-proof. Mercury can be added intentionally in substances such as fixatives, preservatives, lab chemicals, cleaners, and other products. When disposed inappropriately, mercury always contaminates the environment. Significant amounts of mercury can turn into a gas at room temperature.

Reducing methyl mercury accumulation in the global environment is a global priority. Fortunately, there are safe, cost-effective non-mercury alternatives for nearly all healthcare procedures that use it. Most mercury based thermometers and

Everyday products such as batteries, lighting fixtures, electrical and electronic equipment, dental products, and measuring and control equipment.

The municipal government of Delhi is developing a plan to phase out mercury-based medical devices (PDF) in hospitals under its jurisdiction.

As more and more wealthy countries pass laws banning mercury products, stocks are usually sold to Asian countries. This practice is likely to pose challenges to mercury reduction programs in the region. This is an alarming trend, and calls for greater control over trade, including export and import restrictions on mercury.

Earth has several mechanisms to maintain the balance of its biosphere and there is now scientific consensus that humans have significantly altered the balance of the biosphere. Over the past several hundred years, human activity has caused far-reaching changes in the structure and function of Earth’s natural systems. There are substantial health impacts from anthropogenic degradation of nature’s life support systems. The chart below shows several of these.

Several recent reports explore the health impacts of global climate change in great detail. The 2015 Lancet Commission on Climate Change and Health explores the health effects of climate change and fossil fuel combustion. WHO Conference on the Status of Biodiversity Knowledge Review on Biodiversity and Health. The Rockefeller Foundation-Lancet Commission

On Planetary Health situates these both in the wider context of anthropogenic impacts on the environment and the social and political failures responsible for these damages. The figure below takes a detailed view. It describes the limits of essential Earth-system processes that make the planet hospitable to human life. Four of these have been violated: climate change, loss of biodiversity and disruption of the nitrogen cycle and ocean acidification,. In other areas (chemical pollution, land degradation, freshwater use, and ozone depletion) threshold limits have not yet been determined (Rockstrom et al., 2009).

It also shows how close we are getting to those limits, which would mean exceeding the Earth’s carrying capacity in those areas. Breaking these limits would undermine the ecosystem processes needed to support our population of 7 billion people.

Some scientists have suggested that our current geological epoch should be titled ‘The Anthropocene’ to recognize it as the time when human activities began to have a pronounced global impact on Earth’s systems.

Biodiversity – the diversity of life – is often referred to as ‘ecological

It is discussed in terms of ‘system services’, the functions that ecology performs in human societies. Examples of ‘services’ provided by ecosystems to humanity include ‘products’ such as clean water, flood regulation, SNF disease control. Forest and wetland systems filter and purify water. Woodlands stabilize soil saturation on steep surfaces, preventing landslides and floods. Plants reduce air pollution by absorbing carbon and other gaseous and particulate pollutants.

Biodiversity ecosystems help control infectious disease and are important for medical research. More than half of all drugs registered with the US Food and Drug Administration in 1981–2010 were derived from natural sources. But deforestation threatens the extinction of tree frog species whose venoms underpin our understanding of anesthetic agents. Climate change and ocean acidification have decimated coral reefs and species of snail whose venom is used to develop new painkillers. Melting artificial ice deprives us of the ability to study how polar bears avoid kidney failure, diabetes and osteoporosis under conditions that cause them in other mammals like us.

Biodiverse systems are also resilient, able to mitigate disruptions, recover from shocks and stresses, and adapt and grow from them. Systems with low biodiversity are susceptible to collapse when faced with new pathogens, but biodiverse ecosystems are robust – that is, they have the adaptive capacity to remain stable in the face of external disturbances and are protective against a range of infectious diseases. There are

The effects of climate change threaten to undermine the past half-century’s gains in development and global health. The effects are already being felt, and future projections represent a high and potentially catastrophic risk to human health. (See Module X Climate Change and Health for more details).

Health inequality is the systematic and avoidable difference in life expectancy and health status between groups of people. Many aspects of policy or social practice affect the environment in ways that can increase health inequality. Development and planning policies often locate a disproportionate number of polluting industries, power plants or waste disposal areas near low income or communities. Transportation and housing practices also affect the distribution of environmental pollutants. The principle of environmental justice recognizes that all people have a right to equal protection from environmental burdens.

preventing health disparities

Imagine that you are standing on the bank of a fast flowing river and you hear the sound of a drowning man. You jump into the cool water, fight against the strong current and make your way to man. You hold on tight to him and slowly swim back to shore. You drag him to the bank and start CPR. As he begins to revive, you hear another cry for help. You jump back in the water. You struggle against the current and finally reach a drowning woman. You eventually get her to shore, lift her to the shore next to the man and begin resuscitating her. As she begins to breathe, you hear another cry for help. Dazed, tired and overwhelmed, you return to the cool water and make your way to a desperate child.

Although the child weighs very little, a lot of effort is required to bring it to the shore, to put it on the shore and to revive it. Near exhaustion, it occurs to you that you are so busy rescuing people that you don’t have time to see what is happening upstream that caused them to fall into the river. Why are people falling? Is the bridge broken? Are they unaware of the danger of crossing the river at that point? Should warning signs be posted? Do I need to learn swimming? Has a particular cultural practice resulted in an increased risk of falls?

The story is an allegory of the ways in which we can choose to prevent ill health and death. Drowning people represent people who have become ill and need treatment in the health care system. Curative treatment is costly, labor- and resource-intensive. In contrast, identifying and preventing upstream, or ‘root’ causes of injury and disease (preventing people from falling into a river) is a powerful way of reducing inequalities in health.

There are three types of interventions that can reduce risks or hazards to health. Primary prevention is preventive. The aim is to prevent disease or injury before it occurs. th

This is done by preventing exposure to hazards that cause disease or injury, or by altering behaviors that may lead to disease or injury, or by increasing resistance to disease or injury when exposure occurs. These include legislation (and enforcement) to control the use of hazardous products (such as asbestos), education about safe practices (such as reducing occupational exposure to health hazards),

do) and vaccination against infectious diseases.

Secondary prevention is protective. It aims to reduce the effects of a disease or injury by detecting and treating the disease or injury as early as possible, preventing or slowing its progression and the progression of long-term problems. Examples include: screening tests to detect disease at an early stage (for example) and modified work so that injured or ill workers can safely return to their jobs.

Tertiary prevention is curative. It helps people manage long-term health problems or injuries in order to maintain their ability to work, their quality of life and their life expectancy for as long as possible. Examples include management (eg) and vocational rehabilitation programs to retrain employees for new jobs when they are unable to recover their previous work.

Take the example of a polluted river that causes illness in the surrounding community.

Primary prevention action: Contact the company discharging industrial chemicals into the river (eliminate exposure completely).

Secondary prevention action: Advise local residents to avoid certain uses of the river, identify symptoms of disease, or initiate a screening program to treat poisoning or infection early.

Tertiary Prevention Action: Teach people how to reduce the effects of their condition.

In environmental health issues, a combination of primary, secondary and tertiary interventions is needed to achieve a meaningful degree of prevention and protection. However, further

“Upstream” from a disease and injury is the likelihood that an intervention will be effective and reduce health inequality.

Another reason to focus on source or primary level prevention of environmental health hazards is that healthcare organizations themselves are major contributors to environmental pollution, resource depletion, climate change, and biodiversity loss. A large private hospital can produce up to a ton of general waste every day, along with a range of chemical, pharmaceutical and radioactive wastes requiring special handling. Burning medical waste produces large amounts of airborne dioxins, mercury and other pollutants that can drift for thousands of miles, and the ash from incineration can spread disease.

Our discussion of health equity includes considerations of the distribution of resources for health and justice within nations and among groups of people. It believes that greater equality can be achieved through policy and practice. But it only considers people of the same generation. In a world of global environmental changes, a similar idea needs to be created inter-generationally. In many ways, the economic, development gains in the health gains of the last century have been achieved at the expense of the health of future generations.

humans and their ecosystems

Thinking about health and well-being in the context of development requires a comprehensive multi-disciplinary understanding of the interactions between humans and their ecosystems. Events in the last few decades have brought to the fore the need to understand the relationship between the environment we live in and the potential threats to our health. On December 4, 1984, over 40 tons of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, killing nearly 4,000 people instantly and causing significant morbidity and premature death for thousands more. The leak was caused by a large multinational conglomerate, which was able to insulate itself from disaster for the most part due to weak laws related to environmental protection, indicating a need to strengthen such laws and provisions.

Nearly three decades later, India again faced an environmental disaster: floods in the state of Uttarakhand in 2013 killed more than 6,000 people. This was attributed to climate change and poorly managed development projects: unseasonal monsoon rains, along with the premature melting of Himalayan glaciers, triggered widespread landslides and floods. The situation was worsened by numerous dams, random diversion of rivers and illegal tourist and other development along the river banks. The need of the hour is to create legal and policy frameworks to understand and manage environmental risks for morbidity and mortality, and to safeguard against large-scale violations of environmental safeguards.

There is clear evidence that the environment and health are closely related. Data from the World Health Organization (WHO) show that environmental factors are responsible for 24% of the world’s disease burden, 35% in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa, and 23% of all deaths. Environmental changes are largely attributable to human activities and the resulting driving forces and pressures; Increasing global warming is increasing the risk factors affecting human health.

Climate change was among 26 environmental, behavioral and occupational risk factors assessed by the World Health Organization as part of a comparative assessment of global and regional causes.

Burden of disease for the year 2000.3 Ta

Lika 1 shows that climate change is causing an enormous burden of disease in the developing world. India is also facing similar challenges from rising rates of water-related diseases such as diarrhoea, vector-borne infections such as malaria and the double burden of malnutrition. climate

Between 2030 and 2050, malaria, diarrhea, heat stress and malnutrition are projected to cause an additional 250,000 deaths per year. Children, women and the poor in developing countries will be the most vulnerable. The Health and Environment Linkage Initiative (HELI) recommends that policy should address the root causes of climate change; and adapt to a changing climate through actions that immediately improve the health of the poorest communities and reduce their vulnerability to future climate change impacts5.

At the national level, there are several programs that address issues related to disease control, better availability of water, sanitation and hygiene, malnutrition such as the National Vector Borne Disease Control Program, WASH, ICDS/Kindergarten Nutrition Program, Mid Day Meal, etc.

RBSKY, Prevention and control of non-communicable diseases etc. The draft National Health Policy 2015 also talks about some of the areas mentioned above. However, progress has been slow in implementing the provisions of policies and programs available to reduce environmental risks to health; And more focused research is needed on the relationship between environmental health hazards and its impact on human health in order to respond effectively as we move forward.

A World Bank study (2001) on the contribution of environmental factors to ill health concluded that a fifth of the total burden of ill health in Andhra Pradesh may be attributable to environmental causes. The study states that morbidity and mortality due to major environmental exposures account for about 20% of the total burden of disease across India; Second only to malnutrition and ahead of all other preventable risk factors. World Health Organization (WHO, 2009) Estimates – Based on Comparative Risk Assessment, Evidence Synthesis and Expert Assessment for Regional Risk and WHO Country Health Statistics 2004 –

World Bank (2001). Environmental health in India: priorities in Andhra Pradesh. Environment and Social Development Unit, South Asia Region; World Bank, New Delhi.

that the annual environmental burden of the diseases was 65 DALYs per 1000 population. Globally, this ranges from a low of 13 to a high of 289 per 1,000 DALYs; And in India, this translates to about 2.7 million deaths annually, which accounts for 24% of all deaths worldwide. The same report indicates environmental burden for disease status in India

Risk Factors/Environmental Hazards: Generally, environmental hazards are classified as follows:

(i) biological hazards such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, protozoa and fungi; (ii) chemical hazards from harmful chemicals in air, water, soil, food and man-made products; (iii) natural hazards such as fire, earthquake, volcanic eruption, flood and storm; (iv) cultural hazards, such as unsafe working conditions, unsafe highways, criminal assault and poverty; and (v) lifestyle choices such as smoking, poor food choices, alcohol and unprotected sex.

Disability-adjusted life-years are a standard measure of the burden of disease. The DALY concept combines the fraction of life-years lost due to premature death and years of healthy life as a result of disease or disability. A weighting function that includes discounting is used for the years of life lost at each age, reflecting the different social weights that are typically assigned to disease and premature mortality at different ages. . The combination of discounting and age weighting produces a pattern of DALYs lost from one death at each age. For example, the death of a girl child represents a loss of 32.5 DALYs, while the death of a woman at age 60 represents a death of 12 DALYs (the value for men is slightly lower due to their lower life expectancy). . Source: Murray and Lopez, 1996.

(i) traditional risks associated with poverty and under-development, including unsafe water, poor sanitation and waste disposal, indoor air pollution and vector-borne diseases (such as malaria and dengue); And

(ii) New risks due to ‘development’ projects that lack adequate environmental safeguards, urban air pollution and exposure to agro-industrial chemicals and wastes.

A report released by the Ministry of Environment and Forests unpacks these categories, taking stock of the status, risks and challenges of environmental health.

There is an accompanying ‘vision’ document which takes a comprehensive approach to the issue. 10 The report acknowledges that the environment we live in has a great impact on our health, and identifies the following specific household, workplace, outdoor and indoor factors that play an important role in determining human health:

(i) Water: About 75-80% of water pollution is due to domestic sewage, and the rest is due to industrial waste water which can be highly toxic. Major industries which cause pollution at the place of production: Distillery, Sugar, Textile, Electroplay

ting, insecticides, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper mills, tannery, dye and dye intermediates, petro-chemicals, steel plants, etc.

ting, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper mills, tannery, dye and dye intermediates, petro-chemical, steel plants, etc.

There are other sources of pollution as well. Those that are ‘nonpoint’, such as agricultural fertilizer and pesticide runoff in rural areas. Unsafe water, consumption of contaminants and poor sanitation are linked to infectious diarrhea

EA, cholera, jaundice and other gastrointestinal tract infections which together cause significant levels of morbidity and mortality.

The environmental effects of poor water quality on human health are causing increasing casualties among the world’s poor, especially in developing countries including India. Globally, more than 1 billion people do not have access to a safe drinking water supply, while 2.6 billion lack adequate sanitation; Diseases related to unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene account for an estimated 1.7 million deaths every year.11 In India, contamination of a water source (such as water taps, hand pumps, wells etc.) can result from a number of factors: Open Defecation, improper drainage system, monsoon floods, land irrigation and fertilizers used in agriculture.

Of the 692 million people in South Asia who practice open defecation, 90 per cent are in India. Water stored in containers within homes also presents a risk due to a variety of unhygienic practices. Diarrheal infection caused by consumption of dirty water is one of the major causes of death of many poor children. A World Bank study on environmental health in India suggests that “most of the health benefits come from improving access to water in rural areas”.

Sanitation in both rural and urban areas is a public benefit that accrues to the local community through the reduction of health risks for all households, rather than private benefits that accrue primarily or exclusively to those households. who install water connections or toilets.’13

(ii) Ground water pollution: Industrial waste contaminates ground water sources; The heavy metals and toxic compounds contained in these effluents pose significant health risks. Several incidents of ground water pollution have been reported due to industrial clusters especially electroplating units, 4 tanneries, dyeing and printing units etc.

(iii) Air pollution: The biggest contributors to air pollution are industries, vehicles and to some extent domestic sources. Urban air pollution resulting largely from the combustion of fossil fuels causes a wide range of acute and chronic conditions such as asthma and, in the case of suspended particulate matter, lung cancer. Other components of air pollution, such as lead and ozone, have also been associated with serious health effects. Industries that contribute significantly to air pollution include: thermal power plants, iron and steel plants, smelters, foundries, stone crushers, cement, refineries, lime kilns, chemical and petro-chemical plants, etc.

(iv) Indoor air pollution: Indoor cooking with solid fuels such as cow dung, wood, agricultural residues or coal releases a large number of pollutants including carbon monoxide, nitrogen and sulfur oxides. Indoor air pollution is closely related to poverty, as it is largely the poor who cook indoors with unprocessed fuels and use challahs or chulhas that are not energy efficient. This results in the emission of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, suspended particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) etc., which cause respiratory diseases such as cough, dyspnoea and abnormal lung function. The most affected by household air pollution are women and children. The use of biomass fuels (such as wood), and is responsible for an estimated 1.6 million deaths annually. More than half of these deaths occur in children under the age of five.14 Biomass fuel is recognized as one of the major social determinants of child malnutrition in India. Upgrading to cleaner and more cost-effective energy technologies such as LPG, biogas or solar power will significantly reduce the effects of indoor air pollution, especially in rural areas; as also

Improved design of stoves and ventilation systems and increased awareness of health risks among the public.

(v) Biological hazards: Infectious diseases spread by biological means constitute a significant burden of disease, especially in developing countries. Diseases like Tuberculosis, Influenza, Malaria and Measles are examples of diseases spread by bacteria. Viruses are smaller than bacteria but just as dangerous, causing diseases such as influenza and HIV/AIDS; the latter can be tray

Mother to child was passed even further. Biological hazards can be contagious, spreading through air, water, food, and body fluids. A large-scale outbreak is called a pandemic, and sometimes such an epidemic can be global, as in the case of avian flu or HIV/AIDS.

(vi) Climate change and allergies: Climate change may put humans at risk for extreme weather or seasonal disasters. Changes in weather conditions can alter the dynamics of disease vectors (such as malaria and dengue); It can alter the yield of agricultural crops, affecting nutritional outcomes; resurgence of pests and pathogens; and due to the depleting natural resources and degradation of the natural environment.

A range of effects on human health.

(vii) Chemical pollutants: The Indian economy is heavily dependent on agriculture. There is an increasing reliance on the use of pesticides to avoid and reduce environmental risks in agriculture. “Long-term exposure to pesticides may increase the risk of developing developmental and reproductive disorders, immune-system disruption, endocrine disruption, impaired nervous-system function, and certain cancers. Children are at greater risk from exposure than adults.” Is.”

Thus, it is an important environmental health issue in India and must be addressed through policy and programs. The World Health Organization recommends a multi-pronged approach to mitigate the effects of changing agricultural practices: (i) at the policy level, better regulation and control of the sale, distribution and use of pesticides; (ii) systems for identifying, treating and monitoring cases of pesticide poisoning, at the health system level; and (iii) educating well designed people

Zoonotic Transmission: A recent study by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), UK found a huge burden of disease that is transmitted from animals to humans – ‘zoonose’. The study found that 13 zoonoses are responsible for 2.4 billion cases of human illness and approximately 2.2 million deaths each year. most of them have

in middle- and low-income countries.19 While zoonoses can be transmitted to people by wild or domesticated animals, most human infections are acquired from the world’s 24 billion livestock, including pigs, poultry, cattle, goats, sheep and camels Huh.

Figure 2: Global spread of zoonotic disease

What kinds of health problems can be caused by environmental stressors such as chemicals and radiation?
What health problems are people likely to experience when exposed to different levels of environmental stressors?
Is there a level below which some chemicals do not pose a risk to human health?

What environmental stressors are people exposed to and at what level and for how long?

Are some people more likely to be vulnerable to environmental stressors because of factors such as age, genetics, pre-existing health conditions, ethnic practices, gender, etc.?
Are some people more likely to be exposed to environmental stressors because of factors such as where they work, where they play, what they eat, etc.?

Environmental risks are usually expressed as probabilities. Risk is the possibility of being harmed by a hazard that can cause injury, illness, death, economic loss or damage. Risk is expressed as a mathematical statement of the probability that an individual will be harmed by exposure to a particular hazard. So, for example, the chance of developing lung cancer by smoking a pack of cigarettes a day is 1 in 250. This means that one in every 250 people who smoke a pack of cigarettes every day is likely to develop lung cancer in their lifetime.

Risk assessment is the process of using statistical methods to estimate how much of a risk a particular environmental hazard poses to human health, and to develop an appropriate risk assessment.

Any specific risk can be mitigated.

A detailed internal review of Canadian risk management strategies adopted by a range of public agencies in the face of different types of environmental risks (food safety, prescription drug use, contaminated sites, etc.) was published in 2003, with the following principles: Was recommended: Risk assessment, management and communication: 21

Table 3: Principles and ethical concerns of decision making in risk management

decision making theory ethical concern

Do more good than harm: prevent or reduce risk and ‘do good;

As much as possible Gratitude/Non-

harmfulness

Reasonable process of decision-making: should be as fair, fair and objective as possible taking into account the circumstances of each

positional fairness/natural justice

Ensure equitable distribution of risk: must ensure fair outcomes and equal treatment for all concerned through equitable distribution of benefits and burdens Equity/distributive justice

Seek optimal use of limited risk management resources: use resources where they will have maximum risk reduction benefits

Promise risk management more than it can deliver: a clear public accounting of what is known and what is not, what can and cannot be done Integrity

Don’t take more risk than you can tolerate yourself: Understand

Influencers’ Attitudes ‘The Golden Rule’

Be cautious in times of uncertainty, as evidence can be uncertain ‘Better safe than sorry’

Promote informed risk decision making among all stakeholders, with full and honest disclosure of all information necessary for informed decision autonomy

Risk management processes should be flexible and open to the development of new knowledge, iterative

Risk is pervasive and cannot be completely eliminated. Life is not risk free.

environmental health protection policies

Policy Framework for Addressing the Health Effects of Environmental Issues

is limited. One of the earliest efforts to address the issue was the Stockholm Convention (2001), ratified by 50 countries, which restricts or eliminates the production and use of 12 chemical substances: 8 pesticides, 2 industrial pollutants and 2 organic pollutants. The Convention was widely praised for protecting the public from DDT and for outlawing an entire class of chemicals generally because of their harmful health effects.

In fact, the Convention substantially widened the scope of such legislation by stating that absolute scientific certainty was not a precondition for proposing to ban a chemical.22 Earlier, the United Nations Framework on Climate Change Convention (1992), and later the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) Kyoto Protocol (1997) called for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, which are known to have harmful effects on health. Agenda 21 of the Rio Declaration is often cited as an important international provision that ‘with an emphasis on meeting the needs of primary health care—control of communicable diseases, especially in rural areas, protecting human health and Provides the boost it needs. Health of Vulnerable Groups, Addressing the Urban Health Challenge and Reducing Health Risks from Environmental Pollution

More recently, the Sustainable Development Goals, which seek to revisit and build on the Rio Declaration, have adopted health as an explicit concern of sustainable development, reflected in Goal 5 and a number of specific targets. ; They advance the agenda of the Millennium Development Goals by specifically recognizing the impact of the environment on health outcomes. However, it is generally recognized that enforcement of such treaties has been weak.

In India, the National Environment Policy (NEP) formulated by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 2006 aimed to emphasize the environmental impacts of all developmental activities, including conservation of resources. The main objective of this policy is that while conservation of environmental resources is necessary to secure the livelihood and well-being of all, the surest basis for conservation is to ensure that people dependent on particular resources derive better livelihoods from the environment.

The fact of conservation rather than depletion of resource. The NEP viewed human health as an entity with “incomparable value” that could adversely affect the environment and pose significant risks to human health.

The NEP argued that environmental degradation often leads to poverty and poor health outcomes.

including malnutrition, lack of access to clean energy and safe drinking water. Recognized that rapid industrialization based on poor assessment of environmental impacts results in further poverty of the rural poor as they are largely dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods; And groundwater contamination can cause serious hardship in rural areas as it is the only source of drinking water in many places. In urban areas, the NEP identified the lack of (or improper) wastewater treatment and sanitation, industry and transport-related pollution, which adversely affect air, water and soil quality, as threats to health.

These environmental risks were seen to negatively affect the ability of the urban poor, especially to seek and maintain employment, attend school, and exacerbate gender inequalities. The NEP emphasized the importance of reducing indoor air pollution, protecting sources of safe drinking water, protecting soil from contamination, better sanitation measures, and better public health governance to reduce the incidence of many serious health problems.

The National Health Policy 2002 reiterated the effects of environmental change on health.25 It also emphasized the importance of environmental policies in India to address the effects of environmental change on human health. For example, unsafe drinking water, poor sanitation and air pollution contribute significantly to the burden of disease, especially in urban settings. The draft National Health Policy 2015 also addresses the impact of climate change on health. For example, it emphasizes measures to reduce air pollution, better management of solid waste, and to improve water quality, especially in urban areas. In addition, the Government of India has launched a program to address the issues of water and sanitation – the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan – with an emphasis on behavior change, building modern technologies (clean technologies) for public services and regulatory measures. As supplements that address each of these. These urban health determinants.

Recently, the National Policy on Safety, Health and Environment at Work Place was announced in 2009. The policy sets out a set of goals with a view to building and maintaining a national preventive safety and health culture and improving safety, health and the environment. at the workplace. It identifies eight specific work areas including enforcement, national standards, compliance, awareness, research and development, occupational safety and health skills development and data collection.

Is. The policy is envisaged to be reviewed at least every five years, after an initial review to ascertain the status of safety, health and environment at the workplace

Environmental health has become one of the major public health issues, which must be tackled by building resilience in an equitable manner, taking into account inequalities and vulnerabilities.

Equality is the absence of avoidable or treatable differences between groups of people, whether those groups are defined socially, economically, demographically, or geographically.

Vulnerability is the degree to which a population, individual or organization is unable to anticipate, prepare for, resist and recover from the effects of disasters.

Resilience is essentially the flip side of vulnerability. It is “the ability to survive, overcome and thrive.

The impact of environmental risks largely falls on the poor and marginalised. The extreme poverty rate has gradually declined from 52% in 1981 to 21% in 2010, according to World Bank estimates; An estimated 1.2 billion people are living on less than $1.25 a day. The average income of the extreme poor in the developing world was 87 cents per person per day, up from 74 cents in 1981. Women represent nearly 70% of the world’s 1.3 billion people currently living in extreme poverty, and are disproportionately affected by climate. change 31

Environmental risks, especially those linked to climate change, make the poor poorer or push individuals into poverty

Directly through rising food prices and agricultural production channels, or indirectly through vulnerabilities to livelihoods. 32 In the understanding of vulnerability and risks, the natural hazards literature in geography and White, 33 Burton et al. 34 and others are theoretical contributions on hazard characterization.

Climate change therefore directly affects health, undermines the social determinants of health, and threatens the viability of many environmental services provided by natural systems. 36 The IPCC Report on Risk Management to Advance Climate Change Adaptation Extreme events and disasters define vulnerability as the propensity for individuals and households to be adversely affected by climate and other environmental shocks and stressors – this vulnerability It is defined in terms of both risk and social determinants. Both of these aspects are seen to increase susceptibility to damage and reduce

Marginalized groups are at high risk of being harmed by social vulnerability due to various dimensions of poverty such as uncertain income, limited assets and resources, poor knowledge and adaptive capacity, no alternatives. Livelihood alternatives and social exclusion.

In operational terms, pursuing equity in health means addressing health inequities that are systematically underlying social disadvantage or marginalization – both of which are influenced by environmental factors. 38 Eliminating systematic health disparities between social groups requires addressing their root causes and reducing their negatives. health effect. 39,40 Both equality and human rights principles strive for equal opportunity for health—by providing care to improve the health of the poor, but also by helping to change the conditions that lead to, exacerbate, and perpetuate poverty and marginalization. Let’s help. 41 It argues for proactive policy and program interventions to address issues of water quality, sanitation, vector-borne diseases, indoor and ambient air pollution – all of which disproportionately impact the rural and urban poor.

“Physical health and psychological dimensions of poverty may also play a role in influencing both the vulnerability to climate change and the resilience of poor populations. While the term resilience has various meanings in the climate change literature, in the context of poverty, resilience is understood to refer to poor individuals. and the ability of poor communities to recover or ‘bounce-back’ from climate shocks and stresses. The poor often experience high levels of illness, mental stress, stigma, shame, humiliation and other burdens that exacerbate monetary losses and hinder their ability to escape poverty, respond to external shocks, or plan for the future.”42,43 Poverty alleviation is one of the most important strategies for mitigating the impacts of climate change on the poor. one of; and to reduce inequalities in social and

Environmental determinants of health. Strengthening public health systems to expand services to hard-to-reach populations is therefore critical to protecting the health of the poor from climate change, in particular. These broad-based responses enhance an individual’s and community’s own capacity to respond to a changing climate, and improve their ability to respond to social and environmental shocks.

On the other hand, it is not easy to measure the resilience or adaptive capacity of a society. Early literature on the subject often assumed that wealthy, industrialized countries would be able to adapt, while poorer, less industrialized countries would not. The IPCC’s Third Assessment Report identified five characteristics that contribute to the adaptive capacity of communities

: (i) economic condition; (ii) available technologies, information and skills; (iii) infrastructure status;

(iv) institutional framework and governance; and (v) equity. Therefore building resilience to climate risks and adapting to environmental risks should be part of a broader effort to improve and maintain the social and environmental determinants of health. In India, at the national level, environmental health and climate change policies are included in its economic, industrial and human development policies, which come first. Environmental health and climate change policy has been reactive rather than proactive and focused mainly on the energy sector.46

Sixth. Role of different actors in response to environmental health challenges

Laurie Garrant, in her best-selling book, The Coming Plague, extensively researched a series of global health disasters that have been the result of a ‘world out of balance’. The spread of old diseases and the emergence of new ones due to changing environmental and social conditions present a frightening scenario of global pandemics with the potential for serious loss of life. She recommends that humans must learn to live together while addressing the environmental threats we face by investing in better research, technologies and systems that help us address the challenges of increasing disease.

Others have recommended that the burden of climate change on health can be avoided for the next 2–3 decades through environmental and social determinants of climate-sensitive diseases, strengthening climate resilience of both preventive and curative aspects of health systems. and adapt to changing climatic conditions.47

Over the past 3 decades, WHO has enhanced its program with a focus on working with national health ministries and other partners to support and guide the implementation of protective measures. The main strategy to build resilience to climate change and adapt to climate change is through improving and maintaining the social and environmental determinants of health. They recommend the following actions: 48

– The health department should work with other departments to address the issue of climate change and adopt a “health in all” approach;

– Regular impact assessments of key areas for vulnerable populations such as employment, health, energy, small-scale farming, migration, gender and children;

– promoting inter-ministerial policy dialogue;

– ensuring policies are socially inclusive and ensuring that new infrastructure and budget prioritization do not exacerbate social inequality;

– taking into account the specific needs of vulnerable populations through meaningful community engagement;

– use of environmentally friendly technologies, environmental determinants of health for example regulations on air, water, food quality, housing safety and waste management; And

Emergency preparedness and disaster risk management and funding must also be taken into account.

Most members of the WHO European Region are engaged in strengthening their health systems: in particular infectious disease surveillance, environmental health services, early warning for extreme events and disaster response, international health regulations, and the integration of climate change into public health policy. on plan

Environmental Studies

Environmental Studies

‘Nature’ and Society

ecology and environment

changing human-environment relationship

Global warming

due to global warming

effects of global warming

Climate change

increase in global temperature

sea level rise

rain change

Effects on Humans and Human Health

effect of global warming on agriculture

loss of ecosystems and biodiversity

ecology and ecosystem

environmental sociology

Global warming

acid rain

loss of biodiversity

ozone layer depletion

ozone layer and its depletion

Chemicals Involved in the Production and Depletion of Ozone

Main Effects of Ozone Depletion

Mitigation measures to reduce ozone depletion.

impact on biodiversity

conservation of biodiversity and

Global Initiative for Biodiversity Conservation

due to environmental destruction

solving environmental problems

Rise of environmental consciousness and movements

Social construction of environmental problems

Theoretical Approaches to Environmental Sociology

classical sociological tradition

Caton and Dunlop’s contribution

risk theory

ecological modernization theory

Sustainable Development, Policies and Programs

continuous development

Sustainable Development: Historical Perspective

environmental Law

socio-cultural sustainability

Ecology, Development and Women.

socio-cultural sustainability

Population Growth and Sustainable Development

Urbanization and Sustainable Development

Industrial Growth and Sustainable Development

Global Warming: Threat to Sustainable Development

military conflict and nuclear war

Environment and Development Projects

Biotechnology: A Way To Sustainable Development

Organisms and their environment

environment and society

ecology and environment

changing human-environment relationship

How do we respond to such dangerous impacts on socio-ecological systems?

risk and vulnerability

Resilience Thinking – A Step Towards Sustainability

Ecology and Society in Pre-Colonial India

Medieval period (c. 700 – AD 1750)

Relationship between economics and ecology

marine ecosystem

biome

environmental protection

Fundamentals of Neo Classical Economics

The birth of environmental economics

Analytical Approaches Used in Environmental Economics

agricultural ecology

Green Revolution in India:

Social Cost of Green Revolution:

organic agriculture

Announcement of the first set of organic production standards (1960)

global market

philosophy of organic farming

organic farming in india

Historical Perspective of Organic Farming

sources of plant nutrients

principles of organic farming

growth of india

Causes of environmental destruction