Socialization and education

 

Socialization

Man keeps on learning something or the other from birth till death. When a person is born, at that time he is only a living effigy of flesh and bones. At the time of birth, he has social qualities and not antisocial. He was not even aware of his body. The only reason for this is that ‘self’ does not develop in him. But gradually he becomes a social animal growing up in the midst of society and culture. That is, a person learns to behave according to the traditions, customs, beliefs, customs of the society. Thus, the process by which a biological being turns into a social being is called socialization. Through this process man learns the norms of the society and becomes an active member of the society by behaving according to them. The process of socialization takes place in every society, be it the civilized society of America or an uncivilized wild race. It is through this that the personality of a person develops. Different sociologists have explained the process of socialization in different ways.
According to Johnson, “Socialization is a learning process by which the individual performs social roles. In this definition, Johnson has shown that a person learns the values, ideals, customs of the society and plays his roles and cooperates in social work.

According to Fichter, “Socialization is the process by which the individual accepts the patterns of social behavior and learns to adapt to them.” Fichter, like Johnson, has described socialization as a process of absorption.
According to Kuppuswami, ‘Socialization is an interactive process by which the child’s behavior is shaped according to the expectations of the members of the group to which he belongs.
According to Bogardus, “Socialization is the process of working together, developing a sense of collective responsibility, and being guided by the need for the welfare of others.” – Bogardus, in his definition, emphasizes the interaction effect in the process of socialization But in this, he has emphasized only on the positive initiative. That is, he published only virtues under socialization. This is the biggest weakness of Bogardus’s definition. In fact, through the process of socialization, a person does not only acquire virtues and good things. Learns, but also learns some opposite things or demerits from them.
According to Kimball Young, “Socialization is the process by which an individual enters the social and cultural sphere and becomes a member of various groups in the society and by which he is motivated to accept the values and ideals of the society.
It is clear from the analysis of the above definitions that socialization is a process by which a person learns to behave according to social customs and conventions. According to the different conditions of social life, the development of a person’s personality takes place only through socialization. Self-consciousness in the individual by socialization. Self-determination, a sense of who we are. The qualities of social self-control and social responsibility come

Characteristics of Socialization

The characteristics are becoming clear on the basis of the definitions given by various scholars regarding socialization. Some of the key features are as follows
(i) Socialization is a process of learning.
(ii) Social customs, traditions and ideals are learned through this.
(iii) Through this process the individual changes from a biological being to a social being.
(iv) Socialization is a lifelong process, that is, it continues from birth till death.
(v) Socialization develops self-consciousness, self-determination and sense of belonging in a person.
(vi) It inculcates the qualities of self-control and social responsibility in a person.
(vii) The process of socialization passes through different levels. ,
VIII) The process of socialization takes place through various means.
(ix) The process of socialization takes place in all societies.

Aims of Socialization

Bom and Ceznik have mentioned four main objectives of socialization.
1. Basic Discipline – Socialization is necessary to keep human life regular. Through the process of socialization, a person learns the customs, ideals and values of the society. Thus he becomes an active member of the society. As a result of socialization, he establishes harmony with other people in the society.
2. To instal aspirations – The purpose of the process of socialization is to create aspirations in the individual and help in their fulfillment. It means to say that desires are born inside a person with socialization. Aspirations are created from these desires and then these are also fulfilled through the process of socialization.
3. To teach the responsibility of social roles: Every person has a status in the society and there are roles associated with that status. It is necessary to fulfill these roles. type of socialization

It makes a person aware of his social responsibilities. It is through this that a person learns social customs, as a result of which he becomes successful in performing his roles.
4. Development of social skills – The process of socialization develops those abilities within the individual which help him to adjust successfully in all spheres of social life. Through socialization, those qualities come in the person, who are with the society. Adaptation helps.

Stages of the Process of Socialization

Johnson has divided the process of socialization into four levels.
(i) Oral Stage
(ii) Anal Stage (iii)
Identification Stage
(iv) Adolescence

1. Oral Stage – This is the first stage of the process of socialization. In this state, the fetus remains comfortably in the womb. This stage lasts for one to one and a half years. In this stage, all needs are generally physical and verbal. In this stage the child does not know anyone in the family except his mother. In fact, he does not feel himself separate from the mother. According to Parsons, a child is an asset to other members of the family. It is called the oral stage because it learns to signal for its care. The infant begins to express gestures through its face. In this stage, children feel physical pleasure. This situation is called by Freud as primary identification. In this condition, children feel hungry, feel cold or hot, and experience discomfort in every task. These inconveniences cause distress to the child and he cries and screams. Samajkamakoma kaiteemchalat.
   2 . Anal Stage – The stage of infancy starts from one and a half years and ends in the third or fourth year. In this stage the child is given toilet training. The child is taught to wash hands with soap and keep clothes clean. In this stage the child starts reacting in every way. Not only does he desire to love the mother, but he himself also starts giving affection to the mother. In this level, the child’s actions are classified as right or wrong so that he can understand the difference between right and wrong. He is praised for the right actions, and on the other hand, scolded for the wrong actions. In this way he starts behaving according to his family and culture. In this stage the child comes in contact with other family members apart from the mother and gets influenced by them. Now he starts talking and walking a little. In this way, the nature of imitation is developed in children. When family members show anger, protest, love and cooperation, children also start showing feelings of tension and love. Thus the child starts playing dual roles.
2. Identification Stage Generally, this stage lasts from three to four years of age till twelve to thirteen years of age. Johnson told that in this stage the child becomes attached to the whole family and starts recognizing all the members. The main feature of this stage is that the child is not familiar with sexual practices, but many sexual changes start taking place in his body. At this time the child starts identifying its gender (i.e. whether it is a boy or a girl) and its interest in the opposite sex starts increasing. In this stage the child is expected to behave according to his/her gender. If he behaves according to his gender, he is encouraged. In this way he gradually learns gender discrimination. In this stage, sexual development in children becomes to such an extent that they become jealous of their parents. In the beginning the child is not able to establish complete identity with his gender and situation. Because jealousy and anxiety are more in him. But he gradually learns to control them. In this stage, children develop complex emotions. Boys are unconsciously attracted towards the mother and girls towards the father. Boys’ attraction towards their mother is called Oedipus complex and girls’ attraction towards their father is called Electra complex. The stage of identification is also known as Latency stage.
   4. Adolescence (Adolescence) Puberty often begins in this stage. In this stage, children aspire for more independence from their parents. This stage lasts from 13 years to 18 years only. This stage is very important. It happens, because in this stage boys and girls experience serious tensions. The reason for this tension is the physical changes in boys and girls. At this time, children are expected to take necessary decisions related to their lives on their own. For example, choice of life partner, choice of occupation, etc. Children often get confused while taking these decisions, but they are expected to take these decisions keeping in mind their family traditions and cultural values. Make decisions. But usually it is the interest of teenagers
   Forests are unfavorable and are made due to mental stress. The process of socialization at this stage is influenced by the incest taboos of the society which have special significance in the culture. In this stage, children have to adjust with neighbors, playmates, friends, teachers and newcomers apart from their family. In such a situation, they get new experiences by facing new situations. In this stage, children also learn to generalize situations. In this state, the feeling of super ego develops in them, due to which self-control arises in them. The process of socialization does not end in these four stages. But they are important and noteworthy from the point of view of personality building. After this, the processes become easier, because the language and those abilities are developed in the person, due to which he can easily understand and assimilate a situation.
   Even after adolescence the process of socialization goes through three major stages

(i) youth
(ii) adulthood
(iii) old age

(i) Youth – In this stage the person attains many positions, such as father, husband etc. According to all these posts, the person works and fulfills the important responsibilities of the family and the society. He has to face a situation of role conflict in performing the roles related to different types of positions.
, ) Adulthood – In this stage the burden of social responsibilities increases on the individual. He also has to bear the burden of education, initiation, marriage and business etc. of his family and children. As a senior officer or servant of the office, new responsibilities have to be handled. In this way he gets new experiences in different situations.
Old age – In this stage, physical, mental and social changes start becoming evident on the person. Now they play many important roles as Dada, Nana etc. job holder
The person retires from service at this stage. In general, now he has to depend on others. At this time he has to adapt to many new circumstances. It is clear that the process of socialization continues in one form or the other throughout life. After adolescence, this process becomes relatively simple. Johnson has discussed three reasons for this. First, the adult is generally motivated to act for the attainment of a goal which he himself has seen. Second, the new role he wants to internalize has a lot in common with the roles he has played before. Third, he easily understands new expectations through language. Thus the process of socialization continues automatically after adolescence.

Agencies of Socialization

Family – Family has an important place in the means of socialization. Man remains in the family from birth till death. Therefore, it plays a very important role in the formation of personality. When a human being is born, then it is just a living effigy of flesh and bones. Gradually he comes in contact with the family members and changes from a biological being to a social being. Parent-child relationship in the family, parent-child relationship and mutual relationship between children also affect the process of socialization. We can understand their effects in the following way
(a) Parent-Parent Relationship – The role of parents is very important in the families of all societies. The father provides instrumental leadership to the children and the mother provides expressive leadership to the children. The father is the owner of the farm and business as a seeker leader and is also the leader in the hunt, while the mother acts as the mediator in the family. It is only the mother who does the work of making a compromise and removing quarrels and disharmony. Along with this, she is affectionate, close, benevolent and emotional towards children. Son wants to be like father and daughter wants to be like mother. In this way, it can be said that the influence of parents is immense on children. If a rift or gap arises in their relationship, then it affects the personality of the children. In a family where there is quarrel and discord between the parents, there is a lack of balance in the children of that family. If husband and wife maintain a relation of love and cooperation in the family, then it has a very good effect on the children and they become successful in living a balanced life. The development of children’s morality also takes place in the family. In the families where the parents give emphasis on moral ideas, in those families only high morality is developed in the children.
(b) Relationship between parents and children – Not only the relationship between parents in the family, but the relationship between parents and children also affects their personality. When parents give enough love to children, pay attention to their needs and requirements, then they feel secure. If the parents do not give enough love to the child, do not fulfill their needs, then they feel insecure. parents if

Children are looked upon with disdain and neglect, then the feeling of inferiority develops in the children.
Children are looked upon with disdain and neglect, then the feeling of inferiority develops in the children.
बच्चों को तिरस्कार और उपेक्षा की दृष्टि से देखा जाता है तो बच्चों में हीन भावना विकसित हो जाती है।
If children are looked upon with disdain and neglect, then the feeling of inferiority develops in children.
यदि बच्चों को तिरस्कार और उपेक्षा की दृष्टि से देखा जाए तो बच्चों में हीन भावना विकसित हो जाती है।
Sometimes they also become vindictive in nature and a feeling of revenge towards the society awakens in them. On the contrary, excessive pampering makes children careless and irresponsible. They expect from others, but become selfish and self-centered. Sometimes it is also seen that parents do not see all their children equally, they discriminate against them. This kind of behavior with children affects their personality. The one who gets more love becomes a scoundrel and the one who is not favored becomes destitute and shy. Along with this, the feeling of jealousy and rivalry develops among the children. Kimball Young has said in this context, “The basic socialization of the child takes place in the family only. All the basic ideas, healthy, skills and norms are acquired in the family only.”

(c) Mutual relation of children – Mutual relation of children is also important. The mutual relation of children means the relation between brother-brother and sister-sister. Apart from this, the effect of birth order of children also affects their personality. It is often seen that the first child of the family wants to enjoy all the facilities alone.

The only reason for this is that for a long time he alone gets everyone’s love. Enjoys all kinds of comforts, as a result of which he also becomes selfish. On the contrary, the youngest child of the family is loved by all. Since there is no other child to share his love, the childishness of such children slowly fades away. Middle children become of competitive tendency. The main reason for this is that these children sometimes compare themselves with older children and sometimes with younger children. All the time they feel that the amount of love they are getting is not enough, it gets divided into big and small. If a child in the family indulges in delinquent behavior, it has a bad effect on other children as well. On the contrary, if a child goes ahead, other children also try to move forward. The social status of the family also has an impact on the development of the children. It is clear from the above discussions that the family is the basis of socialization. Davis also clarified the role of the family in socialization and said that “the initial stages of socialization begin in the home.” According to Samuel, “It is primarily the home where the heart opens, habits are formed.” The intellect is awakened and good or bad character is molded. In the family, the child gets such education, which helps him to become an ideal citizen and also helps him in different situations of the society and teaches him to adjust.
Play-Group (Play or PeerGroup) – After the family comes the place of play-group, which plays an important role in the process of socialization. Sports – The group is also called sports or group of friends. Leaving the family, the child plays with other children of his age. In this play group, the child learns to follow the rules of the game, which in turn teaches him to be in control and follow discipline. As a result, he remains restrained and disciplined in different areas and situations of life. This quality makes him a guide to others. In the family, children get security and love, but in the play group, they develop the ability to adapt to adverse situations. The habits, interests, attitudes and thoughts of the children in these groups differ because they come from different families. Through play, children establish rapport with everyone. If he loses during the game, he acts with restraint.

As a result, through this he learns to remain self-controlled even after the difficulties and failures that come in life. When a child violates the rules of the game, other children oppose him. Together they emphasize on following the rules of the game. This behavior controls and directs the behavior of children. Leadership, ability to take responsibility, performance of duty in the child while playing with his playmates; The habit of accepting one’s mistake etc. qualities are developed. All these qualities provide the basis for the personality of the child. Rijman says that the sports group is an important group for socialization in the present time, because nowadays the person depends more on the same age people for guidance and direction. This is the reason why most of them give more importance to the advice of friends for their decisions. Children who do not get a group of friends, they do not play, they do not develop independently.
Neighborhood – The third place comes after the family and the sports group. Children learn a lot by coming in contact with neighbours. Their thoughts, ideals, beliefs, actions and suggestions have a deep impact on the personality of the children. Neighbors have special affection for children. So from time to time 10 praise or criticize their behavior. Neighbor’s medium of humor and sarcasm
Children learn to behave according to the traditions and customs of their society. This is the reason why people consider it necessary to have good people in their neighborhood. Children imitate the behavior of people in the neighborhood. The neighborhood takes the form of an extended family in a way.
Kinship Group – Kinship group includes all those relatives, who are related to each other by blood and marriage ties. For example, parents, brothers and sisters, husband and wife, mother-in-law and father-in-law, Sister-in-law, brother-in-law, uncle-aunt, maternal uncle-aunt etc. The thoughts, behavior and suggestions of these relatives have an effect on the personality of the children. On coming in contact with them, the children keep on learning something or the other. While playing roles, he learns with whom to have close relationships, with whom to joke and joke or distance. He learns from these relationships that of which status to give respect, love and affection. Cooperative life after marriage Learns. Thus his overall personality develops. All these are the primary means of socialization. Apart from these secondary means also have an important place. Some of the important institutions which contribute as secondary means are as follows
Educational Institutions – Schools, colleges and universities etc. come under educational institutions. The main medium of education is the book. Which develops new knowledge and intelligence in children. During this period the habits of children are formed. which is necessary for life. Educational institutions have their own rules and procedures, which students have to follow. Students try to mold themselves according to their standards. The mental and intellectual abilities of the children are developed by the studies there. Through books, they get knowledge of different works and different cultures and their achievements. Individuals from educational institutions are appropriate – inappropriate. Practical is able to get the knowledge of theoretical distinction. The importance of educational institutions has been going on since ancient times. Earlier people used to get education by going to the house of the Guru, now people go to schools and colleges and acquire knowledge. Thus it is clear that educational institutions have always been playing an important role in the process of socialization.
, Cultural Institutions – Cultural institutions also have a lot of contribution in the process of socialization. The work of cultural institutions is to play a major role in the socialization of the individual and in the disorder of his personality and to introduce him to the culture of the society. Knowledge, world practice, ethics and law under culture. Ideal values etc. provide a special direction to a person’s personality. In fact, the qualities, thoughts and behavior that man learns under the process of socialization, they all come under culture. Culture refines human behavior. With the help of culture, a person takes birth as a living being and becomes a human i.e. a social being. Robert Beerstead has said in this context, “We are not human by birth, but become human by acquiring our culture.” In this way, culture and cultural institutions are very important in the socialization of an individual.
The Occupational Group also imbibes the values of the occupation a person is engaged in. He comes in contact with many people in the course of his business and knows their qualities and characteristics and also imbibes them. In this way, every person related to business, whether it is officer or agent, manager or customer, learns something or the other from everyone, due to which his behavior is refined.
Caste and Class: The role of caste and class in the socialization of an individual cannot be denied. Each caste has its own practices, traditions, beliefs, thoughts, feelings and behavior patterns related to food, drink, living etc. This is the reason why there is some difference in the personality of people of different castes. The rituals of different castes are also different, due to which their socialization is done differently. Similarly, the lifestyle, behavior, thoughts and feelings of each class are different, which affect the personality of the person. Thus it is clear that caste and class give direction to the process of socialization in their own way.
Political Institutions – Political institutions also have an important contribution in socialization. The state affects all aspects of human life. Political institutions introduce a person to law, governance and justice system. Makes a person aware of his rights and duties. In modern complex societies, where mutual relations between individuals are formal and indirect, the role of the state is very important in determining, regulating and controlling the behavior of individuals. In the modern era, many important functions of the family are being fulfilled by the state. As a result, the importance of the state is increasing day by day. Along with the state, it also has its judiciary, by which the person who rules and regulations of the state

violates it, he is punished. Because of this, people try to live in a disciplined manner.
Economic Institutions – The role of economic institutions in socialization cannot be denied. Economic institutions enable a person to live. Economic institutions are related to the system of production, productive forces, nature of production, nature of consumption, distribution system, standard of living, business cycle, economic policies, industrialization, division of labor, economic competition etc. The effect of all these is on the person’s interpersonal relationships, thoughts. It depends on beliefs etc. For example, economic competition is not found in agricultural economy, whereas fierce economic competition is found in industrial system. The economic conditions of the society have an impact on the type, size and function of marriage and family. Thus it is clear that economic institutions influence the process of socialization of the individual.

Mass Media:
From the earliest forms of print technology to electronic communication (radio, TV etc.), media have been playing a central role in shaping the personality of individuals. Since the last century, technological innovations such as radio, motion pictures, recorded music and television have become important agents of socialization.

Television, in particular, is an important force in the socialization of children throughout almost the entire New World. According to a study conducted in the US, the average youth (between the ages of 6 and 18) spends more time watching ‘the tube’ (15,000 to 16,000 hours) than studying in school. Apart from sleeping, watching TV is the most time consuming activity of the youth.

In relation to the other agents of socialization discussed above, such as the family, peer group, and school, TV has some distinctive features. It allows for imitation and role play but does not encourage more complex forms of learning. Watching TV is a passive experience. Psychologist Yuri Bronfenbrenner (1970) expressed concern about the ‘insidious effect’ of TV in encouraging children to forego human contact for passive viewing.

Religious Institutions – Religious institutions have a deep impact on a person’s life. The concepts of sin-virtue, karma-rebirth and hell-heaven come under religion. Religious institutions inspire a person to do proper, virtuous and religious works and not to do improper, sinful, irreligious and anti-social works. Religious institutions inculcate purity, peace, justice, good character and peace in a person. As they develop the qualities. Religion makes a person follow the social rules by showing fear of supernatural power. Davis says that religion helps in the coordination of society and personality. Religion as a means of socialization plays an important role in the development of personality of an individual.

Stages and stages of professional socialization of teachers

There are various models of occupational socialization. They are as follows;

simpson model
Stage 1: Proficiency in specific job functions.
Stage 2: Attachment to significant others in the work environment. Step 3: Internalizing the values of the professional group and adopting the behaviors prescribed by it.
violence model
Stage I: Transition of Anticipated Role Expectations to Role Expectations of the Social Group.
Stage II has two components: Component One: Attachment to significant others. Component Two: Ability to note inconsistencies presented by expected roles and their significant others. This stage can involve strong emotional reactions to conflicting sets of expectations. The resolution of conflicts is successful if their role models display appropriate behavior and show how conflicting systems of norms and values can be integrated.
Stage III: Internalization of role values/behaviors. The degree of internalization and the extent to which conflicts are resolved are variable.
The professional socialization process is often defined by three phases: Recruitment.
vocational preparation
organizational socialization

The first two stages are regarded as pre-service or advance socialization stages occurring before and during the vocational education period. Organizational socialization is considered to be the in-service period during which the individual interprets and assumes the role of a qualified professional in a given work environment.

(Olensen and Whittaker 1970). Staton and Hunt (1992) developed a chronological model of teacher socialization process. The model has three categories: biography, pre-service experience, and in-service experience. The initial role is played by the first two processes: biography and pre-service experience which can be considered as the initial form of socialization of the teacher. Many authors, including Wright (1959) and Wright and Tusca (1967), argue that the kind of relationship teachers and essential people had in childhood influences their choice of work as teachers in the future. Teachers generate stereotypes that influence their behavior and role as teachers. For some this role model would become a guide to what a teacher should be like.

Weidman, Tweel, and Stein (2001) conducted a comprehensive review of graduate and professional socialization in higher education. he made a model

Which provides a useful basis for explaining socialization in the higher education system. The model is presented in Figure 1.
Thus vocational socialization is a two-stage process that is formal and informal in which the skills and values acquired in training must be adjusted according to the demands of the work setting.

According to learning style theory, learning is a four-stage process: “concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation” (Kolb, 1974). To be a high achiever, a student must be encouraged through learning,
ie through teaching, to join, integrate and make a great effort

academic work. (Astin 1984; Kuh 1996; Pascarella and Terangini 1991). Thus, students should be encouraged by faculty members to participate in student activities, integrate into the major program, and participate in research projects. According to McKinney, et al (1998), activities outside the classroom lead to the process of socialization of students.
“Professional socialization” or informal socialization such as: independent research papers, volunteer service, informal interactions with faculty members and teachers… may be seen as unimportant by some but considered important to others. McKinney, et al, (1998) emphasized that “providing learning opportunities and experiences, as well as knowledge and skills, helps students understand the workings of college life, the importance of a fulfilling academic experience, sociological imagination, and the ethics and standards of our discipline.” Other authors define these activities as “other” or “informal” curriculum activities outside the traditional classroom. (Kuh 1993; Kuh, et al, 1994). According to Weidman (1989), both formal and informal socialization influence students’ values, aspirations and career choices.

The importance of professional socialization outside of class room activities was discussed by McKinney, et al. (nineteen ninety eight). He argued that: Professional socialization encourages active rather than passive learning, a process that essentially breaks the ice for diverse student populations and serves as a remedy for declining enrollment. Hence, it works on retaining top students and preparing them for graduate programmes. On the other hand, Brooks (1997) considered professional socialization as a solution to the problem of isolation caused by the use of technology in the teaching and learning process.

Many positive associations exist between professional socialization and student outcomes. Neapolitan (1992) studied the effect of a small-scale internship program on the clarity of students’ career plans. They concluded that students who participated in internship programs were more confident about their career choices and majors. Pascarella (1980) suggests that a positive relationship exists between informal socialization and students’ satisfaction with the college experience, greater educational aspirations, intellectual development, academic achievement, and persistence in college. In addition, “more student-faculty interaction, interaction with faculty members outside of the classroom, or working with faculty members on research outside of the classroom” positively correlates with student satisfaction with the institution (Astin 1993), persistence (Grosset) found related to 1991), educational aspiration (Hearn 1987; Pascarella 1985), academic development (Terrizzini and Wright 1987), knowledge acquisition (Kuh 1993; Springer et al. 1995) and career interest and selection (Astin 1993). Other researchers studied the effects of “student involvement in extracurricular activities”. Results showed a positive correlation with students’ persistence (Carroll 1988; Christie & Diham 1991; Pascarella & Chapman 1983), academic growth (Terrizzini & Wright 1987), and level of intrinsic interest in learning (Terrizzini et al. 1995).

According to McKinney, et al (1998) most students defined professional socialization “in terms of learning what behaviours, norms or roles are expected of them in their filed or future employment”. Talk about speaking up. Having a conversation, and dressing professionally.” The same students suggested a variety of measures to improve professional socialization. He talked about: “improving internship programs, providing more information about career options, access to mentoring and more interaction with faculty members”. On the other hand, faculty members defined professional socialization as “involvement of students in research, pro-seminars, capstone courses, informal contact with faculty members, taking students to professional conferences, participating in faculty-student social events, and/or or as defined by the Dept. research symposium, and/or field trip, and/or career day, and/or departmental newsletter…”

Despite the fact that most researchers encourage informal socialization because of the various benefits it provides, several barriers still exist. Many faculty members complain of extra work which requires extra time and extra efforts
l As an additional cost to the institution promoting such socialization. Other

The problems relate to the resistance to change that may occur because some faculty members and chairpersons are unwilling to accept reform. Another opposing party could be parents and legislators. In this case, students may not be able to cope with such an environment or may not be motivated to do additional work, plus the faculty award structure may be unable to evaluate each faculty member’s job and thus accordingly can compensate, which fact can be another demotivator. (McKinney, et al, 1998)

In his quest to find the characteristics of an excellent teacher, Collinson (1999) defined three types of knowledge that an excellent teacher should possess. It is no longer a matter of professional knowledge or the degree to which the teacher has control over his subject, but also of interpersonal and intrapersonal knowledge. Interpersonal knowledge is defined as “people skills”, “the relationship and interaction of the teacher with his or her surroundings”. Howe and Collinson. (1995) supported the importance of cross-learning as it makes teachers more tolerant of criticism from different viewpoints and motivates them to accept new approaches to learning and teaching. Sternberg and Howard (1995) emphasize the link between successful informal socialization in its various forms and interpersonal knowledge. On the other hand, intrapersonal knowledge, defined as “who we are”, is related to “ethics of care, work ethics and disposition to learn”. A teacher’s ability to translate his or her own ethics and temperament to students will certainly affect student performance, commitment, and confidence.

In short and according to Weidman (1989) both formal and informal socialization influence students’ values, aspirations and career choices.

 

The distinction between education and socialization has been made in many ways and these concepts are also considered by some to be more or less synonymous. The distinction generally views socialization as the process of preparing an individual to become an efficient social agent in society, and education as something in addition to this, which may include being able to reflect critically on a particular society or This can include several types. More or less sophisticated cultural achievements whose value may be obvious to the individual but whose value to society at large is less obvious. Underlying most of the distinctions is an assumption, though it is perhaps not so clearly put forth—that anything that can reasonably be called socialization involves a desire and tendency to make people more equal, and in education The opposite impulse and tendency is to make people more specific.
• The distinction between education and socialization has been made in many ways and these concepts are also considered by some to be more or less synonymous. The distinction generally views socialization as the process of preparing an individual to become an efficient social agent in society, and education as something in addition to this, which may include being able to reflect critically on a particular society or This can include several types. More or less sophisticated cultural achievements whose value may be obvious to the individual but whose value to society at large is less obvious.
• As Durkheim says, “Man is really man only because he lives in society”. Being socialized is the process of fitting into a complex social environment and in this process a certain limited set of human abilities are developed and actualized from an indeterminately large range.
• But Dewey’s use of “education” for the process of development in social life is no less than that of Durkheim. Those who want to separate education from socialization need to define two terms. But for Dewey “the concept of education as a social process and function has no definite meaning until we define the type of society that we have in mind”.
• The idea of a separate process of socialization leads to the danger of a narrowly conceived scheme of vocational education to perpetuate the divide between rich and poor. The means of overcoming these threats was to relate both formal instruction and vocational education to the lived reality of current social experience.
• Everyone understands the difference between learning how to use a tool in a utilitarian way and using a tool to create an aesthetically satisfying product. What is wrong with some parts of the traditional form of education is that this distinction has been complacently accepted and treated as if it is considered perfectly fair to children.

The masses must be taught in a utilitarian way – if indeed an acceptable proportion can be taught to use tools, read, calculate etc., adequately to the demands of their job and social role – and to educate others Suitable .
• In general, it can be said that the whole society is the agency for socialization and that every individual with whom he comes in contact and interacts is an agent of socialization in one way or the other. Socialization occurs in all interactions, but the most effective interactions occur in specific groups that are subjected to a process of socialization.

It is called Jansiya.

If one’s view of society is so broad as to include all aspects of life and their meaning for all members of society, then education may be seen as part of a more general socialization process, or synonymous with socialization. will be seen as If one’s idea of society consists primarily of a set of economic, industrial, legal, political, commercial transactions and the relationships they determine, there is nevertheless a distinct cultural world of knowledge, understanding, and appreciation that characterizes particular societies. provides pleasure that transcends the relationships and transactions of particular societies at particular times, one would probably want to separate initiation into “society” by “socialization” and initiation into the cultural sphere by “education”. One might perhaps say that the significance or otherwise of the distinction depends on one’s response to what is called
“The problem of the culture-limitedness of meaning”.

This chapter explores why some people consider the distinction important and why others consider it unimportant, and why others again do not consider it important. It also considers whether it is fair to make such a distinction and, if so, the proper way to make it.

Durkheim, Dewey and Socialization

Durkheim’s Thoughts:
Durkheim makes no distinction between socialization and educating: they serve as synonyms for him. He does not accept anything that is of human value that is outside society, and therefore any initiation into any aspect of human life must be socialized. By stressing the absolute importance of a society for man and the role of education in educating the youth in particular societies, incidentally, he is trying to expose the shallowness.

Notions of education – such as those of James Mill – focused on the cultivation of the individual, as if people had free choice as to what characteristics they would encourage in youth: “even those qualities which at first glance seem so innocuous” which seem desirable, the individual seeks only when society invites him, and he seeks them in the form that it prescribes for him”. But this does not mean that society hinders the development of the individual; Society both makes this possible and, given the social nature of man, it is only within a collectivity that the individual can properly develop: while we have seen society fashioning individuals according to its needs, the fact that It may seem that the individual was submitting to an intolerable tyranny. But in reality they themselves are interested in this compliance; What is new is that collective influence, through education, is thus built up in each of us, representing what is best in us. , tends to draw conclusions about the rights and duties of “society” in controlling the education of individuals that may make others downright bumpy.

Thus, since education is essentially a social function, the state cannot be indifferent to it. On the contrary, everything related to education should be subject to its influence to some extent. Even in private schools, “the education imparted in them should remain under (state) control.” The alternative to this extensive state control is, according to Durkheim, an education disaster: if (the state) is not always there to assure that educational influence is exercised in a social way, the latter must be forced into the service of private beliefs. will be levied, and the whole country will be divided and broken into a jumbled mass of small pieces in conflict with each other.

 

One of the contributions of sociology is the extent to which we become recognizable human beings by being raised in a society. As Durkheim says, “Man is really man, only because he lives in a society”. Being socialized is the process of fitting into a complex social environment and in this process a certain limited set of human abilities are developed and actualized from an indeterminately large range. The limited set is that which is shared by the other members of the society in which the child is being initiated: “Society can survive only if there exists a sufficient degree of uniformity among its members; maintains and strengthens. social life is concerned not only with the basic necessities of physical existence and governing the customs of the group, but also with what we call our culture “Almost nothing survives of what an animal has been able to learn during its individual existence”. possible only through that”. Nor is it only basic information that is passed on in socialization, but also how knowledge and those skills and understandings are interpreted: “Society often requires that we One must look at things from a certain angle and feel them in a certain way. The initiation of children by adults into society, in this general sense, is what Durkheim calls education: “education consists in a systematic socialization of the younger generation”.

The history of schooling in the West over the last century and a half

One way of viewing it is as a generally successful struggle waged by centralized states against the interests of church, family, region and class for control of schools. Prominent in the arms of the state are the slogan “equality of opportunity” and Durkheim-like arguments. However, we may be wary of Durkheim’s easy move from his usual, normative
The positivist conception of society tends to see specific centralized nation-states as an instantiation of that normative conception. The problem with that move is summed up by Dewey (though not specifically mentioning Durkheim): “Social

The purpose of education and its national purpose were identified, and the result was a clear blurring of the meaning of a social purpose”.

 

Davy’s thoughts

Some may think that a lot of confusion could be avoided if Durkheim and Dewey used the distinction between education and socialization. The preceding quote could then be written as: “Education was confused with socialization and the result was a clear obscuration of the meaning of education.” But Dewey uses “education” no less than Durkheim to refer to the process of development in social life. Those who want to separate education from socialization need to define two terms. But for Dewey “the concept of education as a social process and function has no definite meaning until we define the type of society that we have in mind”. For someone who wants to differentiate between education and socialization, Dewey’s claim may be true for socialization but not for education. Those philosophers of education who labor to articulate their “concept of education” without a stable context of the specific social context in which it is to be embedded are, in Dewey’s view, engaged in a futile scholarly exercise. His aim in Democracy and Education was to show that education was not the kind of process that could be defined apart from social experience and to show that if it was allowed to be free from that experience the individual could become “an unreasonable scholar”. and will be left with the formal notion”. From this point of view, a society in which education and socialization can be easily distinguished is one in which the elite will be educated and the rest will be socialized. We see everywhere – the division into ‘cultured’ people and ‘workers.’ Rather, what we have to do is describe the properties of a truly democratic society such that socialization for such a society would include everything that any education wants to be included in the proper concept of social life. Not only is social life like communication, but all communication is educative.

Given such a vision of social experience as continually educating, the desire to separate socialization from educating threatens to separate those aspects of social initiation that Dewey was most concerned with keeping together. The idea of a specific process of education “involves the enduring danger that the content of formal instruction will be the mere subject matter of schools, separate from the subject matter of life-experience”. The idea of a specific process of socialization leads to the danger of a narrowly conceived scheme of vocational education.

Perpetuating the divide between rich and poor. The means of overcoming these threats was to relate both formal instruction and vocational education to the lived reality of current social experience. Thus in order to preserve the social character of all education the educational recommendations which were subverted or distorted in the program of progressivism are followed.

In the literature of progressivism, the traditional distinction between education and socialization is absent because education is viewed as essentially social in character. Its role is seen as preparing people to live at home in a social world that is constantly coming into existence to “naturalize, humanize, every new social and technological development”. To pay no attention to that social reality and to attempt to “educate” children in a dead or dying culture is to pledge to the preservation of ignorance and helplessness for many, and inhumane exploitation for some. Likewise the institution which is chiefly charged with the more or less formal part of this initiation needs to be closely integrated with the experience of the society; It should not be an isolated place where students undergo an artificial and difficult initiation to a culture that does not survive in society at large. Society must continually raid the school so that children can grow in that social experience by doing directly the things that are part of its reality.

Education is different from socialization

The above, then, is an attempt to outline in universal terms why some people do not differentiate between being educated and socialized. It may be helpful here to try to sketch a similar general way of how and why other people make the distinction. The distinction between socializing and educating has been made in many ways, sometimes quite casually and ambiguously. It may be helpful to start with the strong distinction suggested above to try to highlight the key basis of difference: social activities are those that aim to make people more equal; The purpose of educating is to make people more specialized.

First great philanthropist, then, learning a language
, People who share a language share a large part of their view of the world, which is programmed at the level of perception in terms, distinctions, grammatical structure given in that language. Teaching people to be functionally literate is, in this form of distinction, socializing in that it teaches traditions

Which is shared by everyone whose purpose is to communicate by writing. To write with style, to speak with eloquence and to read with critical awareness is to educate. Such things emphasize individual distinctiveness by basic analogies that make communication possible; They emphasize distinctiveness from current clichés and conformist forms.

Uniformity in traditional forms of expression reduces social utility; It has less complexity, less ambiguity, less potential for misunderstandings, and also less richness and diversity. Writing with elegance and reading with partiality is not a matter of social utility. However, it is a matter of educational importance. (The fad is a schizophrenic education; it focuses on formal attributes of exclusivity at the expense of the content that might make someone “eminent”).

In schools, then, we can see all activities to have both a social and an educational aspect – the degree of which will vary from activity to activity. In carpentry or metalworking, for example, learning to use tools is a matter of socialization. Learning to use them with grace, with personal style, and finding there through an aesthetic quality in one’s work above and beyond the need for utility is an educational matter. In learning, say, French there is a level of learning of letters and basic expressions that involves the socialization of that language, but the ease and refinement of understanding a different view of life and the world is aimed at an educational matter. Is. In schools the distinction can usually be made more easily and clearly.

Activities that are engaged in so that people can more easily integrate into society at large — obtain jobs, fulfill basic responsibilities of citizenship, parenthood, etc. — will be primarily a matter of socialization. Those activities which lead to personal development would be liable to be largely educational. We can also differentiate between academic and social activities on the basis of how we justify their place in the curriculum. Social activities are justified on the basis of social utility; Educational activities based on the cultivation of individuals. Both are meaningful: the former are meaningful because they are analogous to the activities that Durkheim said were necessary to keep society functioning; The latter are well suited for the refined pleasures they provide us personally.

In the view of those who hold it, this distinction is important to hold, because we should be able to refer to different criteria in deciding whether curriculum time should be allowed for a particular social or educational activity. Or not. Thus, if we encounter a conflict between some people who want to add a course in driver’s training and some who want to add a course in Sanskrit or music appreciation, we must be clear that we do not decide who Who to include and who to exclude only in terms of a social norm.
We don’t ask what is more relevant to students’ potential in the daily adult world. Instead we need to recognize that schools are both social and educative, and the conflict between learning and Sanskrit cannot be sensibly resolved by applying appropriate criteria to decide which of the various social activities should be included Is. This sharp distinction, then, is seen as a defense of education in schools; A defense is needed in the light of the lack of educational activities in schools in favor of increased socialization. This erosion has been particularly severe, in this view, in North America where schools were intended instruments in the homogenization of diverse immigrant populations and where society at large is seen as appropriately demanding that schools focus more on social concerns. pay attention.

This perspective is expressed most boldly by Michael Oakeshott:
The design to substitute ‘socialization’ for ‘education’ has gone far enough to be recognized as the most important event of this century, the greatest adversity to have overtaken our culture, a dark age devoted to barbaric prosperity. beginning of. this from a project

emerged, which began about three centuries ago (which was neither unwise nor dangerous for educational engagement) to provide an alternative to education for those who dropped out of educational engagement for whatever reason . Since that time this option has been adjusted to respond to changing circumstances, improved and expanded to make it an apprenticeship for adult domestic, industrial and professional life.
has generated various versions of itself, and for the most part it has submitted to the dictates of governments. In fact, it has become the world it has helped to create, it may be recognized as a ‘service industry’. It was designed as a contribution to the good of the ‘nation’; It has been welcomed or tolerated because of the opulence it is said to bring, and attempts have been made to enumerate its product in terms of costs and benefits; and it is defended on the basis of what it is made to be and on the more dubious plea

This is an apprenticeship best suited for certain types of kids. However, this shift to education was allowed to corrupt the educational pursuits of the Europeans; And now it has been announced as its desirable successor. Everywhere usury has been set on foot. But the victim of this enterprise is not merely a historical academic engagement (with all its flaws and shortcomings); It is also the idea of education as an initiation into the inheritance of human understanding on the basis of which a person can break free from the ‘fact of life’ and identify himself in terms of the ‘quality of life’. The disaster of the enterprise is matched by the intellectual corruption of the entrepreneurs.
As can be seen in Oakeshott’s words, the reason for increasingly clinging to a clear division between socialization and education is that it is the only way to explain that humans can incorporate a sophisticated culture that is characteristic of a particular society. Beyond relationships and transactions. , To use Oakeshott’s other images, this culture is like a conversation: it began long ago in primeval forests and expanded into cities and city-states and empires around the Mediterranean; It has continued to grow and prosper over the centuries, parts of it being in poetry, plays, music, painting, sculpture, until at present we have this vast rich cultural conversation that we can engage in. Education is learning the language of this great civilized and civilized conversation. We can certainly live and die without including it, as animals do. For a human being to live and die without engaging in this conversation, however, is to miss the best life has to offer.

There has been an official aversion to viewing schools in North America as merely socializing institutions. A strong statement of this point of view runs through the first half of this century:
‘The fundamental principle of liberty on which all governments of this Union rest, excludes any general power of the State to standardize its children by forcing them to accept instruction only from public teachers. The child is not only a creature of the state; Those who nurture him and direct his destiny have the right, as well as the high duty, to recognize and prepare him for additional responsibilities.’

progressive reactions

Everyone understands the difference between learning how to use a tool in a utilitarian way and using a tool to create an aesthetically satisfying product. What is wrong with some parts of the traditional form of education is that this distinction is complacently accepted and made into practice, such that it is perfectly reasonable to teach the masses in a utilitarian way – if indeed the proportion is acceptable. can be taught to use tools, read, calculate, etc. adequately to the demands of their job and social role – and appropriate to educate others. Conservatives may well say that it would certainly be desirable if everyone could learn more sophisticated use of tools, more sophisticated literacy, and so on, but, unfortunately, these higher abilities reach only a small fraction of citizens. Can only reach What is wrong with all of this from a progressive perspective is the acceptance of a division between utilitarian skill and cultural achievement. The progressive program is designed to prevent precisely that traditional theoretical distinction being realized in social life. No one should be trained only for utilitarian skills with no understanding of the intrinsic value of their actions; No one should be allowed to develop a frivolous, feeble aesthetic sensibility without a sense of social function and utility.

There is an obvious ambiguity in Progressivism’s thinking about traditional high culture, which will be explored later. There is a strain of progressivism that sees this elitist pleasure as everyone’s heritage, and among the complex mix of programs identified as progressivism is a set of methodological reforms that will make high culture available to all. Another strain of progressivism is opposed to high culture, viewing it as miseducation and a hoax. Both distinguish that a product of high culture

Jick is division; the former regard it as a contingency, a historical
A coincidence which can be rectified by proper democratic processes. In the process, the artificial beauty that for traditionalists creates a hierarchy of cultural objects “out there” that has to be internalized into appropriate hierarchies inside will be purified; The artificial crud attached to the unreflective conceit would be wiped away, and the democratically educated new man would be able to look afresh at the contents of this high culture and respond appropriately to the pure beauty.

conditioning and fixation

Historically it would be possible to account for conflicting positions regarding the appropriateness or otherwise of the distinction between socialization and education. In such an account the distinction between those who see knowledge, culture, and aesthetic responses as being socially adapted and those who see them as being socially determined is not recent in the story with any sharpness. Will come Certainly, the conflict is predetermined in Dewey, in that he holds both positions, each at different points. But the arguments are all contemporary, the conservatives haven’t gone away and neither have the progressives given up on “back to basics”. What is more important of late is the hard progressive position illustrated above – a position that, as it puts it, clearly holds that high culture is a political commitment, and that any institution that seeks to preserve it must It is reactionary and hostile to interests. and proper education of the working class. This is a necessary relationship because knowledge, culture, and aesthetic responses are socially determined.
Pursuing what other, linked, arguments call a synchronic rather than diachronic approach, we can create a continuum with two clear discontinuities along its length. On the right there is a desire to make a sharp distinction between educating and socializing, as the distinction preserves high culture, civilization, and what makes life worth living. In between is a weaker form of progressivism that tends to recognize some sort of distinction between cultural initiation and utilitarian training in job skills, and whose adherents believe that high culture can be incorporated into current social life and the labor force. It can be enjoyed by classes, as long as schools are always careful to tie it to the experience being offered. However, there is some discomfort about all this, and there is no promise of initiating the children to high culture, only the vague implication that working class, and other, children should be “exposed” to it, and if it That much takes the better, and if not, it doesn’t matter. On the left, there is a belief that the intersection between socialism and education is a political tool to maintain an unequal, divisive and exploitative social order. It would be useful to consider this left position in more detail. Perhaps we can usefully call this group radicals as distinct from progressives – although their position is sometimes traditionally called progressivism.

Radicals, most fundamentally, believe that “every society has its own unique way of defining and understanding reality”. There is no such thing as objective reality; Objectivity and reality are created by each society and they are what is perceived by each social group. This

The perspective allows its user to see why progressives were unsuccessful in changing, in any serious approach, the traditional education system and class-based social system: progressives failed to see that knowledge and objectivity and reality were conditioned only by were not social experiences but were in fact created in and determined by it. In accepting traditional epistemology with its assumptions about the scientific method establishing an objective view of the world, how certain “facts” about the principles of rationality can be secured, progressives, in addition to reform Lost the ability to do anything and therefore strengthened it. He worked for the reconstruction of the social order. The more radical notion that social life determines what counts as fact, as objectivity, as rationality, leaves the way open for the rejection of the very grounds on which conservatives have so far based their views. The dominance of the social approach has been preserved.

Thus one can see, from this position, why the conservatives were able to continue their control over education and expand their vision of reality under the slogan of “equality of opportunity”. It did nothing towards breaking down the class-based society, but rather became a means of inculcating the clever children of the working class into a traditional view of reality through initiation into its culture. Equality of educational opportunity, while seen by many socialists as a tool in their kit, became a more effective method of maintaining the social status quo. radical challenge is to deny all
Commonly accepted grounds by conservatives and progressives: “sanctioned” (by whom and

for purpose?) belief in principles of rationality, what counts as a fact and how it is established, the ideal of objectivity, and so on. Likewise, fundamentalists have serious doubts about whether one can hope to use schools to change our sense of social reality, given that public schools are middle-class institutions. They have only been good to the middle class and their interests; They have always been hopeless institutions for the working classes. Radicals thus lead to a program of de-schooling and new ways of bringing children home to a better social reality.

Radicals respond in debate with conservatives: “While agreeing that our educational dilemmas are about culture and meanings, these are no different from the political and economic struggles of which such meanings are an expression”. This means that for the radical “the curriculum is a social construction”. Thus the traditional philosophers of education who have simply proceeded with the task of clarifying and elaborating their concepts of education, have been able to explain their political aims, their ideological commitments, their way of life including their relationship with wife and children. seem completely irrelevant, find themselves busy. , kind

the car they like to drive, and so on and vehemently, what they thought was a traditional academic debate governed by old ground rules, which progressives accepted, at their cost. A typical reaction of conservatives at this point is the raising of hands. This is done by most radicals precisely because they see their job not to argue with conservatives – they know all those arguments – but to elaborate on their new perceived social reality and destroy the institutions that make the traditional social reality unjust and dehumanizing. Let’s preserve.

In general, the reaction of conservatives to radicals is not entirely satisfactory. It is not enough to show up hoisting radicals by their relativist petards; Conservatives have to show that they too are not deterred by this. The challenge of relativism, and the extent to which social conditioning affects what matters as knowledge, seems to me to be underestimated by traditionalists, who seem to smugly embrace remnants of nineteenth-century positivist epistemology. The next move for this paper will be to outline the conservative response to progressives and then the radical response to the above conservative arguments. The former’s argument continues and its constraints have been pointed out above; The fundamentalists’ reactions to the above points are not described here, however sketchily, because I do not know what they are. The fundamentalist literature does not find a response to such arguments, merely reiterating the original statements and refusing to accept the terms in which the arguments have traditionally been conducted. Should we differentiate between educating and socializing, and if so, how? Yes; carefully. Yes, because if we sacrifice civilization to justice, nobody benefits; And carefully, because if we sacrifice justice for culture, civilization will rot.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social stratification

The term stratification is derived from geology and refers to the classification of individuals into different levels in society, which is believed to be arranged vertically in the same way as the Earth’s surface. The layers are arranged vertically one above or below the other. But this geoscientific metaphor also has its limits. As Andre Beite (1985) says, “The arrangement of individuals in society is much more complex than the arrangement of layers/layers on the earth and social layers cannot be seen with the naked eye in the same way as we can see the layers of the earth.” Huh . When we talk about social stratification, we are in a way focusing on the inequalities prevailing in the society. In a broad sense, social stratification refers to the classification of society into different strata. This stratification refers to classes arranged on the basis of hierarchy. Many historical and cultural diversities and disparities are found in these classes, in which castes, power class (estate) and class are the most important. Year 1960 Since then, attention is also being paid towards ethnic and gender stratification. Some of the important definitions are as follows

In the words of Gisbert, “Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups or categories which are related to each other by relations of superiority and subordination. It is clear from this statement that social stratification is a system. By this system the society is divided into different permanent groups or categories. Also, these different groups are bound to each other by the relations of superiority and subordination.
According to Sutherland and Woodward, “Stratification is simply a process of interaction or differentiation by which some individuals acquire a higher status than others.” This definition suggests that social stratification is a It is a process. Through this process, the society is divided into different parts. In this division, some get higher status and others get lower status.
Parsons (T. Parsons) has written, “By social stratification is meant the division of individuals into higher and lower hierarchy in a social system.” It is clear from this statement that social stratification is a system of division of society into higher and lower class. Is .

Sorokin has written, ‘Social stratification means the differentiation of a population into stratified superimposed classes of high and low. It is clear from this definition that the society is divided into different classes by social stratification. These classes are below and above each other. That is, stratification is found between these classes.
It is clear from the above definitions that social stratification is such a system through which the society is divided into several groups and classes. Each class has a certain status which is higher or lower than each other. But, these classes and groups are related to each other.

Characteristics of Social Stratification

Universality: Social stratification is a universal process. It has been found in some form or the other in every society. Whether it is backward society or civilized, ancient society or modern simple society or complex, form of social stratification can be seen. This process is found even in communist societies which claim to be classless societies.
Conscious Process: Social stratification is a conscious process. It is produced in a planned manner in the conscious state. Generally this work is done by the elite class of the society.
Division of Society: Social stratification is the system of dividing the society into different classes. Through this, the society is divided into many high to low classes and each class has a certain status. Along with this, the work and facilities related to this position are also available.
Horizontal Division: There is horizontal division of society through social stratification. Horizontal division refers to that division where the society is divided into different classes and equality is found in the condition of the people of each class. For example, under caste stratification equality is found in the status of people belonging to one caste.
Relationship of Superiority and Subordination: Social stratification divides the society into high and low classes. But these classes are not separate from each other, but are related. In the absence of one the other cannot be imagined. For example, one form of social stratification, class stratification, has several classes of upper and lower classes on the basis of occupation, but they are linked by social relations. Similarly, on the basis of meaning, there are capitalist class and working class and they are linked in relation of superiority and subordination.
Individual Process: Olsen has mentioned this feature. He says that stratification is an individual process. Under this system, one level person competes with another level person.

ries to do and sometimes opposes too. Class-struggle and caste-struggle are the gift of this system.
Determination of Attitude: One of the features of social stratification is that it makes it possible to determine the attitude of a person. The caste, class and status group of which a person is a member, his thoughts and attitudes also become favorable to him. This is the reason why difference is found in the attitudes of two different classes of people.
Many Bases: There are many bases of social stratification. Prominent among these are gender, age, property, religion, physical and intellectual skills, race, caste etc. It is up to the society and the social system to recognize whom in stratification and whom not.

Distinction between Caste and Class

‘ (1) The caste system is a closed class while the class system is an open or free class. The social status in a caste is determined by birth and there is no opportunity to join any other caste. On the contrary, the inequalities of man are recognized in the class system. In this, a person is given equal opportunities for progress. A person can enter from one category to another on the basis of his merit.

Individual ability and ability are neglected in caste. The situation in class is just the opposite. On the strength of his ability, a person can reach the upper class of the society.
3. Caste is seen as a closed system of stratification and class as an open system. Generally, the nature of classes is understood to be open, but in reality each class prevents the member of lower class from coming into its class and generally establishes relations only with the members of its class. Practically, the policy of class-endmarriage is also adopted between different classes. This is the reason why some scholars have not accepted any fundamental distinction between caste and class. Nevertheless, it is certain that there are different concepts of caste and class in their nature, functions and prohibitions which can be understood as follows

4. Caste is a closed form of social stratification while class is open. No person except one caste can accept the membership of another caste. The rules of each caste are also different from other castes. On the contrary, the door of class membership is open to all. A person can become a member of any class according to his wealth, ability, skill.
5. The basis of caste membership is birth. The caste in which a person is born once, remains a member of that caste for life. But the membership of the class is based on the actions and efforts of the individual and he can change his class by his ability.
6. A person does not have to try to get the membership of the caste, rather it is given by the society. This is the reason why there is stability in caste. On the other hand, the membership of the class is entirely the result of the individual’s personal efforts and with the change in these efforts, the membership of the class also changes.

, 7. Every caste has a certain occupation and it is the moral duty of the members of that caste to earn their livelihood through that. But in the class system, a member can choose any occupation according to his interest and means.

, 8. Every caste necessarily compels its members to establish marriage relations within their own caste. On the contrary, there is no fixed rule of this type in class. Despite this, members of a class try to establish marriage relations within their own class. 6. The basis of elevation in class is economic whereas the status of caste is determined by the society. The basis of formation of castes are many religious and cultural beliefs. From this point of view, caste is a system of many rules related to purity and impurity. The class-system does not include any kind of beliefs related to purity or impurity.

9. In the caste-system, the profession is decided by birth. In the class-system, there is freedom to choose an occupation according to one’s will. ,
10. Membership of a caste is innate. He gets it automatically from the society. In contrast, class membership is earned. A person can enter from one class to another by his own efforts.

 

 

Bases of Social Stratification

Caste: One of the major zoological basis of social stratification is ‘caste’. India is a shining example of this. In this caste stratification, ‘Brahmin’ has the highest position and ‘Shudra’ has the lowest position. There are many castes between these two extremes respectively. This stratification is very stable and firm.
Wealth: Since ancient times, wealth has been a major basis of social stratification. The people who have more wealth in the society, their status is considered to be higher. They are successful in gathering many facilities of life. On the contrary, the people who have less property, their status is lower. This is the reason why poverty is positionless.
Occupation: Occupation is also a major basis of social stratification. On the basis of the high and low status of the business in the society, the status of the people associated with it should be decided.

For example, some profession is considered high and prestigious in the society. Administrators, doctors, professors etc. come in this. On the other hand, some occupations are considered low, such as barbering, shoe making, etc. In this way, those who are associated with administration, medicine and education, their status is high. Then the status of the people associated with the work of making shoes is low.

Sex: The most ancient basis of social stratification is sex discrimination. In most societies, the status of men is considered higher than that of women. The more facilities and freedom men get in different areas of life, the more women are not.
Age: Age has been considered as the second zoological basis of social stratification. Age often reflects the mental maturity and experience of a person. That is why in most of the societies, more respect, respect and special facilities are given to the people of older age.
Race: On the basis of racial differences, high-low stratification is seen in the society. It is believed that the white race (Caucasian) is the best among species because its color is white, blood is of high level, high mental ability and disseminator of civilization. After this, according to merit respectively, the yellow race (Mongoloid) and the dark race (Negroid) are at the bottom.
Religion: Religion has been the basis of stratification in religious-dominated societies. The people who are more attached to religion, religious knowledge, religious rituals and faith, their status is higher than the common people. religious leaders in India. The main reason for the high status of priests and religious scholars etc. is their association with religion.
Politics: An important basis of social stratification is called politics. Who has the reins of government in his hands. His status is high. Along with this, stratification of high and low is seen on the basis of political power under the governance system. For example, the President has the highest position in the governance system in India. Then after that, respectively, the Vice-President, Prime Minister, Deputy Prime Minister, Cabinet level ministers and Ministers of State etc. come. Thus it is clear that there are many bases of social stratification.

 

 

Forms of social stratification

Closed Stratification: Closed stratification is that stratification in which the status of a person is determined on the basis of birth. Also, there is no mobility found in it. According to this system, a person’s work, status and convenience and inconvenience are determined by birth. The best example of this type of stratification is the Indian caste system. Caste of a person is determined by birth. But the status and position of one caste is higher or lower than that of another caste. For example, the status of Brahmin is lower than the highest. There are many castes and sub-castes between these two extremes. Then there is a change in their condition. That is why caste is defined as a closed class. Closed stratification is known as caste stratification. ,
(2) Open Stratification: Open stratification is that stratification in which the status of a person is determined on the basis of their ability, ability and efficiency. Mobility is a natal feature of such stratification. According to this system, a person can attain high or low status through his own efforts. Also, once the status is achieved, it is not necessary that that status will remain. Change is possible in that. The best example of such stratification is the class system. The basis of class is karma, by karma a person can be an industrialist, laborer, professor and student. According to this the class of a person is determined. Also class is open group. A person can change his class membership. With birth a person gets the class status of his family. But on the basis of his ability and ability, he can increase his status. In this way, it is possible to reach from high group to low group, from low to high group under the class system. That is why some people also call open stratification as class stratification.

 

` Importance or Functions of Social Stratification

Simplify the Work: Under the system of social stratification, the ability of a person is determined. For example, through the caste system, a particular caste gets special qualification and work which it has to fulfill. In the same way, under the class system, a particular class has a special qualification and style of work which it has to fulfill. In this way, through social stratification, a person gets information about what work to do and how to do it. This makes things easy.
Determine the Attitudes: A special importance of social stratification is to determine human attitudes. According to the caste, class or status-group a person is a member of, his attitudes are developed and determined accordingly. From this point of view, social stratification makes a person aware of his attitudes and motivates him to do his own development.
Helpful in Maintaining Social Order:

One of the importance of social abstraction is that it helps in maintaining order in the society. By this, the society is divided into different classes on the basis of birth and qualification and the behavior and manner of the individuals of each class is fixed.

Along with this, such arrangements are made that the person adopts his certain style of work. This maintains the social order.
Helpful in Social Integration: The system of social stratification divides people and groups into different classes. The functions of the people of each class are fixed. One person is dependent on another in the context of other tasks after completing his tasks. Because a person’s needs cannot be met only by K. Due to this mutual dependence is maintained among individuals and groups. This dependence helps in social integration.
Helpful in Social Progress: Social stratification is helpful in progress. The basis of the system, whether it is birth (caste system) or ability (class system), both inspire a person to act according to social recognition in their own way. Caste-religion is talked about under the caste system. According to this principle, the deeds of this birth have been determined on the basis of the deeds of a person’s previous birth, so it is mandatory to follow them. As a result, a person voluntarily performs his duty. Then a person tries to increase the maximum qualification in the class system so that he can achieve a higher position. Both these conditions are helpful in social progress. Thus, it is clear from the above description that social stratification shows its importance both at the individual and group level.
Helpful in Fulfillment of Needs: Individuals have many needs. No person can fulfill all his needs by himself. Through the system of social stratification, the work of individuals is divided. Each person is helpful in fulfilling the needs of the people by doing his specific work efficiently.
Determination of Status: A special importance of social stratification is that by this individuals get proper place in the society which is called its status. The ability, capacity and work efficiency of every person in the society is not the same. It is necessary for a healthy society that status is attained according to the merit of the individual. This need is met by social stratification.

 

Class

A group of people who have the same social status. Many situations are found in every society. As a result, many classes are also found according to them. When the society is divided into different groups on the basis of some other than birth, then each group is called class. Some important definitions are as follows
Maclver and Page have defined class as, ‘Social class is that part of the community which is separated from the rest on the basis of social status. It is clear from this definition that the basis of class is social status. That is, people of the same status form a class which is different from other classes.
In the words of Ginsberg, “Class can be called such a group of persons who are similar on the basis of occupation, wealth, education, lifestyle, thoughts, feelings, attitude and behavior or on one or two of these grounds.” But they should have the consciousness of equality which makes them aware of their own group or class.” Three things are clear from this definition that class is a group of persons, (ii) There are many bases of class formation – business, money, education. , life-style and attitude etc. and (iii) class consciousness, which is called class consciousness.
Mavers and Engels have written, “The coming together of different individuals forms a class only when they struggle as one class against another class, otherwise they, being mutual competitors, are opposed to a single ideology.” Or remain enemies. “It is clear from this definition that the basis of class is struggle. That is, it cannot be imagined without struggle. This struggle happens on the basis of economic interests. On the basis of the above definitions, it can be said that – It is a group which is based on social elements and which has the qualities of class-consciousness.

Characteristics of Class

Definite Hierarchy – Social classes are divided into certain categories. Some of these categories are high and some are low. Those who are members of the upper class have the least number of members but have the highest prestige. On the contrary, those who are members of the lower class, their number of members is more, but their importance and respect is the least. It is a natural consequence of this type of situation that the members of the upper class often take pride in staying away from the members of the lower class. In other words, social distancing is encouraged.

Achieved System: The basis of class is karma. A person becomes rich or poor, industrialist or laborer, expert, on the strength of his work.

Could be professor, doctor, engineer or farmer. According to that his class is formed. This is how class is acquired. A person gets it through his own efforts.
Class Conflict: This feature has been mentioned by Marx. Marx says that the struggle between classes is the only element, which makes sense of the existence of classes in the society. Class cannot be imagined without struggle and this struggle takes place on the basis of economic interests. Thus, on the basis of the concept and characteristics of class, it is clear that class is a prevalent basis of social stratification.
Hierarchy: One of the main features of the class is called ‘hierarchy’. This means that there is a hierarchy of classes in the society in which there are several classes from the highest to the lowest. The stratification of high and low is clearly seen in these classes. According to this stratification, difference is seen in position, prestige and facilities.
Feeling of Superiority – Inferiority: The feeling of superiority and inferiority is seen in classes. Members of one class have a feeling of superiority or inferiority towards the members of other classes. For example, this feeling towards each other is clearly seen between the rich class and the poor class.

Common Life – Members of different sections of the society live their lives in their own special way. The way of living of the rich class is different from the middle class and lower class. The rich class takes pride in spending more and more. The middle class is often stuck in the customs and practices and the way of the lower class is completely different from both of these.

Importance of Economic Basis Economic status is the most important task of class formation. Modern society is capitalist or technological. In these societies, gender, age, etc. do not have a special relationship with class membership. Economically, prosperity or inferiority divides people into upper class, middle and lower class.

Openness and Shifting – Classes are open in nature. It means that if a person is specially qualified or skilled, then he can take membership of any class or can be a member of many classes simultaneously on different bases. Reflecting this position, Bottomore wrote that “whether social classes are relatively free or not, their basis is unquestionably economic, but they are more than economic groups.” It is also normal for social classes to fluctuate. Any poor person can join the rich class by becoming financially prosperous. Similarly, if the economic condition of a rich person falls completely, then he can slip from that class and go to the middle or lower class. This change in class status automatically happens according to the economic status.

Achieved Membership It is clear from the above mentioned fourth and fifth characteristics of a social class that the membership of the class depends not only on birth but on merit, skill and economic prosperity. One has to strive for the membership of the class. If a person belongs to a lower class, he has to prove his worth to enter the higher class. Permanently a person is able to live in the same class according to which he has merit.

Essentiality of Classes – The presence of classes in the society is essential. All people are not equal in terms of ability, functionality, interest, intelligence etc. So it is natural that individuals should Get position and respect according to merit. Only then can the social order be sustained. Classless society has been imagined in Marxism. But it is certain that such a society can never be established. ,

Less Stability – Money, education, business are of provincial and temporary nature, so the class-system based on them is also a stable concept. One who is rich today may be poor tomorrow.

Sub-classes – There are sub-classes under each class in the social class. For example, potti-varga on the basis of right over money in the rich class. Lakhpati-class Many sub-classes etc. Various sub-classes are found.

Life Chances – Max Weber has pointed out a characteristic of class called ‘Life Chance’. Accordingly, “We can call a group a class when its members have some specific opportunities of life in common.”

Class-Situation: Max Weaver has also drawn attention to this feature, which is related to life opportunity. The presence or absence of property in the possession of a class gives rise to a specific situation in which the class resides. If the members of the class have property, then naturally they will get opportunities to earn more money, buy more and maintain a higher standard of living etc. Combined, these opportunities will constitute the typical environment in which the members of that class must live. This is the Class Situation.

Common Life Style: Commonality is seen in the life style of the members of a class which on the other hand is also different from other classes. clothes of a class of people, Khan

There is mostly similarity in food, form of house, living-tolerance and manners. Along with this, the family and matrimonial relations of the members of a class are also limited to their class-groups.

Class-Consciousness: Class-consciousness is the basic characteristic of class. This means that the members of each class have a sense of how their socio-economic-political position and prestige are in comparison to other classes. This is the feeling that binds the members of a class together.
Restricted Social Relations: The social relations of the members of a class are usually limited to their own class. Their eating-drinking, getting up-sitting and other interactive relations are with the people of their class. Also, they maintain a certain social distance from other classes. This is the limitation of social relations, which is a special feature of class.
Mobility: A special feature of the class is mobility. It is not based on birth, but it is based on ability, ability, that is, action. As a result, a member of a lower class can join the upper class on the strength of his ability and ability. In the same way a person can go down to the lower class through failure. Thus there is emptiness in the nature of classes. ,

Caste

The word caste is the Hindi version of the English word ‘caste’. It was first used by Gracia de Orta in 1563. In his words, “People do not change their ancestral occupation. Thus the people who make shoes are of the same type (caste). It is in this sense that Abbe Dubois has used it. He is of the opinion that the word ‘caste’ has been used in Europe to denote a clan and class. A.R.Wadia ) is of the opinion that the word ‘caste’ is a word similar to the Latin language ‘castus’ which means pure race or breed. Some people believe that the origin of this word is from the Latin language ‘casta’ (casta). It is believed that the meaning is complete with racial elements, race, or ancestral qualities. The word ‘caste’ in Hindi is derived from the root ‘jana’ of the Sanskrit language, which means ‘to arise’ and ‘to generate’. From this point of view, the meaning of caste is Is from things with similar qualities by birth. But in sociology the word ‘caste’ is used in a specific sense. The definitions of caste given by prominent scholars are as follows (1) According to Risley- “This family or several a collection of families bearing a common name that traces their origin to a fictitious man or deity

Regarding the concept or definition of caste, it can be said that it is mainly a lesson of people whose membership is based on heredity. It gets a certain place in caste-stratification. A caste is not a community or society itself, but a group of community or society whose society has a predetermined place and it is related to a certain occupation. Some important definitions are as follows
Herbert Risley, while giving the definition of caste, wrote, “A caste is a collection of families or groups of families bearing a common name, which trace their lineage from an imaginary ancestor, who may be a human or a deity.” claims origin, carries on the same ancestral occupation and is regarded as a homogeneous community by those who are entitled to make such decisions or votes. This definition makes 5 things clear – (i (i) a caste is a collective organization of several families, (ii) it has a name, (iii) each caste has an imaginary ancestor, (iv) it has a definite occupation and (v) it exists as a homogeneous community. Is known .
According to Majumdar and Madan (D. N. Majumdar and T. N. Madan), “caste is a closed class. It is clear from this definition that caste is based on birth. One has to live till the end. Membership of caste cannot be changed in any case. In this sense, caste is a closed class.
Dutta (N. K. Dutta) has written defining caste by including the maximum characteristics of caste, “Caste is a type of social group, whose members do not marry outside their caste, restriction on food, profession, are certain, stratigraphic division is found, change from one caste to another is not possible. This definition reveals 6 characteristics of caste – (i) caste is a social group, (ii) caste is endogamous group, (iii) there are restrictions on food and drink in caste, (iv) occupation of caste is fixed, (v) stratification is found in castes and (vi) membership of caste is not possible to change. Based on the above facts, it can be said that there is a dynamic system of caste stratification which is based on birth and imposes restrictions on food, marriage, profession etc.

Characteristics of Caste

1. S. Ghuryehas discussed 6 characteristics of caste, on the basis of which it has been said to be more useful to understand caste. These features are as follows
   Segmental Division of Society: Caste system

divided into certain sections. The position, position and work of the members of each section is determined by birth. And they have a sense of community. Following caste rules is a moral duty.
Hierarchy: Under the caste-system, the status of each caste is a dance of searching for each other. At the top of this stratum are the Brahmins and the lowest are the untouchable castes. These two people are of no caste. Not only this . There are many sub-castes within a caste and there is a distinction between high and low.
Hereditary Nature of Occupation: The occupation of a person is determined on the basis of caste-occupation. Therefore, the caste in which a person is born, he has to adopt the personality of that caste. There is no scope for any change in it. Thus it can be said that the main feature of caste is traditional occupation.
Endogamous: According to the caste system, the members of the caste can establish marriage relations within their own caste or sub-caste. Almost no one dares to violate this rule. Westermark has considered the specialty as the ‘essence of the caste system’. The endogamous rule is still found in castes. Thus, on the basis of above description, it becomes clear that caste system has been a clear and important basis of social stratification in Indian society.
Restrictions on Fooding and Social IntereCHISE: There are restrictions related to food-drinking, social interaction and social interaction in the caste system. Often people of one caste do not accept food from the hands of lower castes. Along with this, many restrictions related to raw and pucca food are observed. Similarly, the feeling of untouchability is found in the context of social contact and interaction.
Social and Religious Disabilities: Special differences are seen in the caste-system among the poplars. On the one hand, as many facilities and rights are available to the higher castes in the areas of life, the lower castes do not have that much. Brahmin is full of many rights in social, religious, economic and other fields. On the other hand, untouchable castes are deprived of even public facilities and rights. Even in rural areas its glimpse is seen.

Race

Species is a biological concept. Members of each species have their own physical characteristics. These traits are basically hereditary. On the basis of these characteristics one species can be separated from other species. Some of the major definitions are as follows
a . Ale . Kroeber (A. L. Kroeber) has written while defining species, “A species is a certified, zoological concept. It is a group related by heredity, race or racial character or subspecies.” It is clear from this definition – (1) Species is used in the zoological sense. (2) It is related to physical traits and characteristics arising from birth.
J. Bisanj and M. Bies (J. Biesanz and M. Biesanz) have written, “A species is a large group of individuals that are identified by innate physical characteristics.” It is clear from this statement – (1) Some specific physical characteristics of each species There are (2) When these specific physical characteristics are found in a large group, that group will be called a species.
E . a . In the words of E. A. Hoebel, “A species is a natural zoological group possessing distinct physical characters. These characters are inherited from one generation to another in a pure form.” This explains – ( 1) Species is a zoological group. (2) A racial group is the owner of specific physical characteristics. (3) These traits are passed on from one generation to another. , On the basis of the above description, it can be said that species is such a large human group whose members have some similar physical characteristics. These characteristics are transmitted from one generation to another and on the basis of this one racial group can be separated from others.

Characteristics of Race
A Particular Physical Type: Certain physical characteristics or features are common to a species. This does not mean that all the physical characteristics of the members of a species are exactly the same. Common physical features simply mean resemblance to the ‘body type’ of one’s own species. One species can be distinguished from another on the basis of physical appearance.
Transmission of Inherited Traits: The physical traits or characteristics of a species are passed on from one generation to another by the process of inheritance. Genes have great importance in transferring the characteristics of a species. Those whose carriers are identical will belong to the same species.
Large Size of Group: A species is a large human group. Its members are spread over a wide area instead of living in a small area. In this way, only when common physical characteristics or characteristics are found in a large group of people, that group will be called a species. The number of its members can be up to crores.
Race Endogamy: Each species mates with its own species.

Adopts the policy of marrying Dasyas. For this reason, the same physical characteristics are found in their children, which belong to that group. Through endogamy, each group also protects its progress from external influences and through this policy, efforts are made to reduce the possibility of mixing blood from other species.
Stratification: Stratification is seen in the society on the basis of racial differences. It is believed that the white species (Calesian) is the best among the species because its color is white, blood is of high level, high mental ability and spreader of civilization. After this there is Yellow race (Mongoloid) and at the bottom there is Shyam race (Negroid).
Biological Concept Species is a biological concept. It is closely related to heredity. considered to be associated with. Merrill wrote, “species is a biological term that refers to the physical similarities of a large human group that are transmitted through heredity.”

 

Gender and Stratification

The oldest basis of social stratification is gender discrimination. Man and woman are the foundation stones of human society. Society cannot be imagined in the absence of any one. Despite this, in most societies the status of men is considered higher than that of women. The more facilities and freedom men get in different areas of life, the more women are not. The basic function of women was considered to be reproduction, taking care of the home and being subservient to men.
When a high-low status is given in a society on the basis of sex, then this condition is known as gender inequality. In Indian society, from the very beginning, men have dominated women as a group and kept their status low in the family and society. The problem of gender inequality is basically a problem related to women. From the theoretical point of view, the status of women in the Indian society has been presented as ideal, but from the practical point of view, discriminatory attitude towards them and their contempt. The humiliation and harassment continues even today. Even now seriousness is not shown to know their opinion, they are not considered equal to men and they are not given due respect. This is gender inequality. In the relations between men and women, only a person with a strong personality attains an influential position. Normally, the man feels the right to command the woman, although in some cases the woman is also in a position to exercise control over the man. In India, from the very beginning, the status of women has not been equal to that of men, but has remained low. Their participation in family and social decisions is found less.
Scientists have explained gender inequality through different approaches. For example, biologists believe that women lack intelligence and power in comparison to biological point of view. That’s why women are subordinate to men and they cannot achieve the same status as men. Anthropologists believe that the earliest form of social evolution was patriarchal. Men dominated the family. Women remained subordinate to men, this is where gender inequality exists even today. Psychologists believe that psychologically women are weaker than men. As a result, their status in the family and society is lower than that of men and it is natural for them to be subservient to men. Sociologists believe that the status of women being less than that of men is the gift of society and culture. Our thinking and behavior are determined by social values and norms. Social value patterns give special importance to men. This is the reason why the status of women is lower than that of men. As a result, a problem like gender inequality developed. In this way, it can be said that when the status of women is determined on the basis of gender considering them as subservient to men, then it is known as gender inequality.

Problems of gender inequality
Economic Dependency: One of the major problems of gender inequality is the economic dependence of women on men. A man can spend his income as per his wish. On the one hand, women are financially dependent on men. As a result, she cannot spend her husband’s income as per her wish. On the other hand, women who are financially independent also spend according to the wishes of their parents before marriage and husband after marriage.
Role Conflict: One of the major problems of gender inequality is the role conflict associated with women. Today’s working women work in office or other places for 8-10 hours, due to which they have to face innumerable problems. Home life has to be adjusted with the routine of the office, then it has to be arranged at different points from the housework and traditional routine. This gives rise to the problem of role conflict.
Problem Regarding Property Right: One of the major problems of gender inequality is the property rights related to women. Legally, the daughter should have the right in the property of the parents, the wife in the property of the husband and the mother in the property of the son.

But in practice it is not so. Even today the property of parents is divided among their sons. Even mentally, the letter does not accept its rights. In rural areas, women are even less aware of these rights.
Political Inequality: A major problem of gender inequality is seen in the political participation of women. Most of the women vote for the desired person as per the wish of their husband or other men in the family. The participation of women in the political field is less. According to the Panchayati Raj system, the influence of their husbands or other male members is seen on the decisions taken by the women who have been elected on the reserved seat.
Marital Inequality: Man and woman enter into family life through the process of marriage. But there is a clear disparity between the two in the marriage process. As per tradition, even today, girls do not get as much freedom as boys have in the choice of life-partner. Even today there is a practice of giving dowry to the boys from the side of the girl.
Inequality in Family: The forms of inequality between men and women can be clearly seen in the family. Inside the family – the responsibility of fulfilling the responsibilities of food-drinking, cleanliness, guest hospitality etc. – is considered only for women. Domestic violence – dowry deaths, wife beating, sexual abuse, ill-treatment of widows and the elderly, etc. – is the result of inequality.
Educational Inequality: Although there is a considerable increase in the education of women after the attainment of independence, but as much awareness is seen in the context of boys’ education, not so much in the context of girls. Where boys are exempted for all types of education, there is talk of giving a special kind of education in the context of girls. Even today, there is talk of giving a special kind of education in the context of girls in rural areas. Even today the percentage of education of girls in rural areas is low.
Social-Violence: The exploitation and violence that is happening with women is basically a sign of inequality. In today’s society, forcing wife, daughter, daughter-in-law to commit female foeticide, molestation of women, denial of share to women in property, torture of son-daughter-in-law for dowry, junior working by senior officers Incidents of misbehavior with women are common

Forms of Stratification

Stratification is that form of inequality in which the members of the society are divided into higher and lower positions or positions. The bases on which this height-lowness of status is determined, these also determine the form or type of stratification. Two basic forms of stratification have been mentioned by the early social scientists. One form of stratification is normative and the other is realistic. Normative stratification is concerned with the nature of stratification, such as open stratification and restricted stratification or the norm of ascribed status and earned status, or the institutional degree and nature of stratification. Actual stratification is concerned with the factors by which members of a society are stratified, such as economic stratification, status quo or power stratification. The dichotomous explanation of the forms of stratification by which the members of the society are divided into two upper and lower groups such as the elite and the common, the elite and the masses, the free and the dependent, the rich and the poor, the rulers and the governed and productive and unproductive groups. In the modern era, the three-class form of stratification is prevalent in which there are upper class, middle class and lower class. Sociologists have mainly mentioned the following five forms of stratification

1. Slavery – Slavery is that form of stratification in which society is divided into two classes called masters and slaves. Keeping other person or persons as slaves as a custom or trend by a person or persons expresses the slavery-form of stratification. Slaves are the property of the master. There was also stratification among the masters on the basis of their ability to keep slaves and the number of slaves. The slaves also attained higher or lower positions depending on the nature of the work. There was a difference of status between domestic slaves and field slaves. Two major examples of slavery are found in human history. Ancient slavery, which was prevalent in the societies of Greece and Rome, was a well-known form of slavery. Another form of slavery existed in the southern part of the United States of America. It has been prevalent for centuries. Slavery has also been prevalent in China in the form of domestic slave system, but here the slave was not considered as private property to the extent that it was considered in Rome.

2 . Estate – Estate is a form of social stratification that developed in the feudal era after slavery. Estate is also a political concept and a social status symbol. A group with special rights in the political field is called Estate or Jagirdari. on the other hand manor or est

The class is that part of the population that occupies a high position in the stratification and enjoys special social rights and privileges. These rights and facilities get legal recognition. Under the estate system, the feudal society was divided into three upper and lower groups. The first place in the social stratification was that of the priests who performed the rituals. In the second place were the noble men or noble persons who were responsible for security during war etc., and in the third place were the common people who labored. The basis of estate was birth and property. The estate form of stratification began at the end of the eleventh century when many slaves were becoming free. The elite people were not ready to include him in their group. The definition of this elite became related to wealth, power and social habits. The aristocracy became a kind of master class and the laborers became subordinate to it. Military instinct also made his nature full of commandment. The distinctive lifestyle became his identity. He lived in a rural area away from the general public but did not do farming. The descendants of the elite group became eligible for special privileges. In India it became associated with the estate system. Here luxury and labor groups were not formed, but this form of stratification based on rural agriculture was of economic and military nature. There was no feudal form of Europe here, and neither was its exploitative system. The estate system was also based on law. In short, the estate was a form of restricted stratification. The rules of stratification were supported by custom and tradition and formal laws were also helpful in these rules and norms.

3. Caste – The direction of social life and thinking in India has been determined by the caste system. The caste system is a rigid form of stratification typical of the Indian social structure, examples of which are not found elsewhere. It is a form of restricted stratification in which a person’s status is determined at birth and remains in that status throughout life. An infinite fund of wealth, or the intensity of talent cannot change his position. Religious belief has been linked with caste. Caste has also been interpreted as a rigid class and also as a status group. Though the caste system appears to be an immutable fixed system, yet it is a dynamic fact. This Indian form of stratification is an adaptation to the circumstances. The development of the democratic system has brought many changes. Changes are taking place in its cultural form and there are also changes in the rank and hierarchy. Caste is an innate group which cannot be changed. It is also an endogamous group. The occupations of castes are pre-determined and cannot be changed. Restrictions on food and social contact or delimitation make the caste system a form of highly restricted stratification. Due to these restrictions, the disabilities of the lower castes gradually developed till the middle ages and they became the victim of the exploitation of the upper castes. They were considered worse than animals. In independent India, the processes of industrialization, urbanization, secularization, Sanskritization, democratization and westernization etc. have brought many changes in the caste system, but the basic form of caste stratification has not changed due to these changes. There has to be a change in the statuses of different castes, but the continuity of the status hierarchy and the basis of caste-membership have not changed. Caste stratification exists in the face of many religious and political conflicts.
4. Class – Social class is the type of stratification that is more prevalent in the modern era. Classes can be understood as economic groups of high-low status that do not receive any religious or legal connotation. Class stratification is a free form of loan. Class members treat other groups as superior or inferior according to their status. Class consciousness is a special feature of class. Marx recognized two classes in social stratification. The bourgeois class owns the means of production. He is the ruler as well as the exploiter. This is upper class. The proletariat labors, is exploited and poor. Mars Weber has also divided the society into two classes, propertyless and propertyless. Class is a specific form of stratification in modern society. Economic status is the main basis of class-determination. Therefore, property, income and occupation are specially associated with the concept of class. In some areas like America, it has become a helpful factor in determining species class. The members of a class maintain the same lifestyle and the opportunities for advancement in life are also the same for them. Ability, hard work and aspiration provide opportunities for class-change. High, middle and low are the three prevalent classes in modern class stratification. Classes play an important political role in democratic countries. Political classes have developed in totalitarian structures.

5, Status Groups – Subdivision has become the main basis of stratification in modern societies. Max Weber has tried to determine the upper-lower social level by considering the quantity of consumption as the basis. People who spend more are in higher status. Briefly explain the following forms of social stratification
economic status

Economic Stratification – The basis of religious stratification is wealth and income. The moral status of a person does not always remain the same. There are ups and downs in this, there are gains. 12 Ups and downs can also change the economic status of the entire group if it can also change the economic conditions of different sections within the group. The average wealth and frequency of each group is different, which increases from time to time. Economic stratification is the ranking of different members and groups of the society on the basis of their economic status i.e. wealth and income.
Political Stratification Societies have become extremely complex due to the expansion of population and development of civilization. Ancient societies were small and simple. Therefore, people were not high or low on political grounds in it. The king, the headman or chieftain was the supreme person and all the rest were subordinate to him. In the modern era, different types of political structures have been developed, under which the division of political situations has started. President, Prime Minister, etc. have become a step-by-step sequence of many positions in a democracy. Political conditions keep changing, as a result of which the political stratification also changes. As the size of a political organization increases or decreases, the stratification also changes. If the variation among its members increases, then the stratification expands and if the variation decreases, then the stratification becomes narrow. Even in the state of war, revolution or rebellion, reversal takes place. Opposing political forces also affect social stratification.
Occupational Stratification Sarokin has described two types of occupational stratification. Intra-occupational stratification is that in which there is inequality in the status of persons engaged in the same occupation. At the highest position are those people who are the owners of businesses, administrators etc. and have control over the employees. The second situation is that of managers or other high officials, who, despite not being the owners themselves, are persons with significant authority. At the last level, the salary earners are ordinary employees and labourers. Generally, customary, occupational and political stratification mutually influence each other. The person who occupies a high position in one field, attains a high position in other fields also.

4. Other Types – In the modern era, on the basis of education, art etc.
   Inequality is found in the status of the members. Race has also been the main form of stratification. In stratification, caste pattern and caste pattern are particularly noteworthy. Thus social stratification appears in many forms. According to sociologists, distinct forms of social stratification have developed in different eras of human history. Slavery was a form of stratification in ancient times, then estate system developed in the feudal era. Caste has been the main form of stratification in Indian society and class system has been recognized as the main form of stratification in the modern world. Out of the appropriate forms of social stratification in India, two forms are very important, so we will discuss them in detail here – 1. Caste System 2. Class System

Caste System

There are many views regarding the creation of the word ‘caste’. The classical country of caste is India. If seen in context, the word ‘caste’ in Hindi is derived from the root ‘jana’ of Sanskrit language, which means ‘to arise’ or ‘to generate’. In this way, the things having the same quality-religion by birth are called a caste. From this point of view, caste exists not only in human beings, but also in plants and inert matter. According to another belief, the Portuguese were the first among the Europeans to use the word Caste which is derived from the Portuguese word Castra which means ‘lineage’ or ‘breed’. The word ‘cast’ is also closely related to the Latin word castus ‘castus’ which means ‘pure’ or ‘unmixed’. In this way, from the point of view of word derivation, caste expresses such a class whose foundation is descent or race, purity or immiscibility, which is completely based on heredity. It is clear that a society is affected by this (caste) system, if this society is divided into a number of conflicting groups, genetically specialized and stratified, if, in principle, it (system) does not accept new individuals. does not accept blood-mixing or change of professions. Many scholars have considered caste or varna as synonymous with each other, but in reality it is not suitable. Although caste originated through the caste system, there are enough mentions of this.

 

Caste: Functions or Merits

Caste system has played a very important role in the protection and development of the Indian society, however, in the process of thousands of years of development, today this system has become such a box of faults, which is the demand of the present era to throw it away. Legal and administrative efforts alone will not be enough in this direction. As long as the feeling of hatred against caste-system does not grow among the Hindu people through educational development and other measures, this corrupt system will not allow our society and nation to unite. When we talk about the benefits of caste system, we mostly mean its ideal nature and form. The notable works by which the caste system has become an object of praise are mainly the following

Personal discipline and protection of honor – The rules of caste keep the individual under discipline and prevent him from doing undesirable and anti-social activities. The undesirable person is ostracized from the caste. In this way caste acts as a social control.

Mental security of the members – The caste system provides mental security to its members. Collective spirit is very influential in every caste. Caste helps man in difficult situations. On the basis of the collective power of the caste, a person experiences mental security. Caste assigns social status to each individual. One does not have to suffer any mental distress as everything is pre-decided for him. He does not have to get into psychological trouble to decide the path, the ultimate religion is achieved only by walking on the certain path.

Cooperation in the group – caste-bond has bound a particular group in the thread of unity. Individuals in a particular caste group consider themselves safe and consider it their duty to be helpful to each other. Caste unity has saved people from many troubles and has given attention to many welfare works like child welfare, management of caste scholarships, caste dharamshalas etc.

Keeping occupational specialties a secret – In ancient times, the caste used to adopt a certain occupation only and was considered expert in it. No caste used to reveal its business secrets to other castes. The members of the caste had to compulsorily keep business secrets secret. The caste does not want the transfer of its special skills to other castes. Along with that, the caste continued to provide training of its special occupation free of cost to its asanas on the basis of natural environment.

Determining social status – Under the caste-system, a certain social status is determined for a particular community, whose status is ensured in the spread stratification. It is clear from all these functions of caste that the caste system is not acceptable as its model. Unfortunately, all these benefits of the caste system have become a thing of the past. The caste system created with good intentions is in front of us today in a very disgusting form. People have made so many defects in the caste system that we want to abolish it. Doctor . In the words of Radhakrishnan, “Unfortunately, the same caste system which was developed as a means of saving the social organization from destruction, is today becoming an obstacle to its progress.”

 

Protection of society, civilization and culture – Caste system has protected Hindu society and Hindu culture. Even after many political upheavals, wars and revolutions, the Hindu society remained safe because of the caste system and the four major parts of the Hindu caste – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras – remained distinct cultural elements. This practice always opposed the change of religion and in this way, the rules and regulations of food-drink, living-tolerance, dress, marriage-system and other rites were maintained among the castes.

Be protected The caste system kept the social tradition alive. Foreign invaders won India’s body but they could not win her mind. The caste system did an important job of binding the diverse communities of the Hindu society together. In the words of Farniwal, “The caste system in India has provided a condition to the society in which any community, whether racial or social or occupational or religious, maintains its distinct character and separate entity. According to Joad, the caste system in its best form was the most successful attempt to bring together different ideas, different classes of this vast country in one session.

Caste system worked as a branch of political system – in ancient times when there was absence of states like Praj, then due to caste system all the people of the society performed their duties and remained disciplined. In this way, at that time, castes were only in the form of branches of the political system, which gave rise to the belief in the democratic system in the society.

Simple labor-division system in the society – Hutton has written that it is because of the caste-system that all the works of the Indian society, whether in the private sector or in the government sector, run smoothly and people do their work on the basis of religious belief or belief. Do it on the basis of ‘karma’. The caste members follow this and people perform their actions on the basis of religious belief or ‘karma concept’. The members of the caste assume that as a result of the deeds of their previous births, they have to take birth in a particular family and perform a particular task in this life. Because of this belief of theirs, they do not hesitate to do even the dirty work and often do not think of rebelling against their position in the society. As a result, not only does a person get rid of mental conflict and despair, but social unity and peace also remain. Due to the implementation of the principle of division of labor in the caste system, each caste acquires skill in its special work. Even though the importance of this work has decreased today, but due to the distribution of work in the past, the efficiency of work and business could be increased on a caste basis. Big unions were formed on the basis of caste system, with the help of which good production was done. Those unions used to protect their brothers from outside competition.

The intelligence of work, maintaining knowledge and progress – Because of the caste system, business intelligence was easily reached from one generation to another. Before the progress of one generation goes waste, the next generation gets that progress. The son of a carpenter became a skilled carpenter and the son of a weaver became a skilled weaver. In this way, when there was no other means of safeguarding the growing knowledge, then the caste system took care of this knowledge and progress. Kept doing

Maintaining the purity of inbreeding – According to Sijbik, the purity of inbreeding does not remain as a result of the end marriage system found in the caste system. But it is difficult to agree with this view because marriages of different castes lead to heredity related defects. Doctor . A silent function of the caste system has been mentioned by Mazumdar and Madan. As a result of end marriage, the marriage of boys is more than that of girls. In this way, due to the caste system, people get peace of mind. Boys perform the responsibility of maintaining the continuity of the family and completing religious rituals like tarpan, pind daan etc.

Birth of high quality civic qualities – caste system gave rise to the feeling of brotherhood and harmony. People of one caste participate in bread, daughter and hookah-water and help each other when needed. They consider the evil of caste as their own evil. In this way, the lofty ideas of love, service, sacrifice and democracy were strengthened by the caste system.

Demerits of Caste System

Rights, initiatives and important works are not encouraged due to the caste system – In the caste system, most of the people get the idea that their social status is fixed by birth and no matter how hard they work, they can progress. It’s hard to be Due to the caste system, Hindus did not pay attention to various discoveries and important rights because in their view, doing so was against caste-religion and rules.

(Diminishing Hindu society – The caste system has spread such a web of untouchability, discrimination and harsh restrictions that a large number of Hindus have become Muslims and Christians. Finding the doors of equality closed in their society, they are attracted to other religions. There was no choice but to leave the Hindu religion for the casteless people. The rigid caste system made about 30-35 percent of the Hindus of India heretics.

Cause of many social problems – Child-marriage, widow-marriage, elite-marriage, groom-marriage etc. many problems have arisen due to caste-system. In the end, we would like to say that as a result of the caste-system, many disruptive elements have been active in the country from time to time and due to these tendencies, the country has had bitter experiences many times. We lost our freedom because of caste division.

Couldn’t even protect. Now we have a nation. India is one nation from Kashmir to Kanyakumari and from Assam to Gujarat. Only the feeling of one nation and one nationality can take us forward, only then we can stand on our feet, only then we can give a befitting reply to our enemies, only then we can safeguard the independence of the country and only then we can be so strong and May be able to fight for justice in the world and counteract injustice. Our invaluable nationalism is in great danger from casteism. No matter how useful caste-caste was in ancient times, but today we should not be fascinated with it by being under any emotion. The caste system has become so corrupted that it is better to abandon it, but only abandonment of this practice is not the panacea for our problems and losses. It cannot be accepted that simply giving up the caste system will remove the defects found in our social structure. For this, we have to re-think every aspect of personal and social life, adopt reformative approach in every field and re-evaluate the entire social structure.

Deterioration of national unity – The caste system has proved painful and destructive for the society and the nation. Due to this, instead of national pride, caste pride was generated in our country. Due to caste-distinction, the opposing invaders could not be fought firmly. Due to its social strength and unity being divided into many small sections of the society, the Sikhs demanded their own separate Sikhistan, while the people of Maharashtra demanded Maharashtra and the Gujaratis separately.

Obstruction in the basic and intellectual progress of the society – due to caste-system, the opportunities for economic and intellectual progress were available only to the high-born people and the Shudras remained deprived of it. This is the reason that the children of the backward and low-caste sections of the society never got the facility of study and their talented and capable children could not find in the light. In this way, this practice hurt the foundation of the society and its level.

Development of high-low, love-hatred, communalism and anti-democratic feelings – – Caste-system is basically undemocratic. Instead of equality, it encourages inequality. Due to this the society has been divided into high and low and the basis of this high and low is birth and not karma or merit. Due to this high-low, a large part of the society has never been able to progress educationally, economically or socially. The caste system itself gave rise to communalism and untouchability. Due to this communalism, first India remained in the clutches of foreign invaders and in the end it was divided into two pieces. The caste-system of untouchability brought about the Harijan problem and this caste-system kindled the fierce flame of non-cooperation and hatred everywhere.

Bad influence on politics – caste-system mostly worked to make the political future of independent India dirty and foggy. The history of independent India is a witness that Indian voters think a lot on political problems from an ethnic point of view. Even at the time of government-formation, caste is not considered secondary because the majority party has caste-related mite. Many times administrative decisions are taken on the basis of caste. In place of ‘State of the people, by the people and for the people’, it has become ‘State of the caste, by the caste and for the caste’ in many respects. Popular government has become a new medium of caste competition. The rival castes have taken membership of different political parties and have formed different factions within the parties. The poison tree of casteism in politics is definitely very dangerous for the democratic future of the country.

Due to the caste-system, the country’s military power suffered a big setback because the work of the castes belonging to the same clan was considered to protect the country, due to which the other castes were alienated from here.

Increase in superstition and conservatism – Caste rules, bye-laws and various religious rituals and customs greatly encouraged superstition and conservatism in the society. Due to this the person’s own freedom got frustrated and he had to live according to caste restrictions and rules.

All the primary resources of the society cannot be fully taken advantage of by the caste system – due to the caste system, the profession of each caste is certain. It is not considered right for a person to adopt a profession outside his caste. A caste person can neither leave the industry of his caste nor can change the means of earning his livelihood. Therefore, due to the caste system, all the primary resources of the country cannot be taken full advantage of.

Caste system is the enemy of women’s rights – The caste system is the enemy of women’s rights. The misery of women in our society is the result of this system to a great extent. This practice does not give any freedom to women in matters of marriage and does not consider them equal to men in other areas also.

Exploitation of poor and low-caste people – Discontent spreads due to the exploitation of poor and low-caste people by this practice. With this practice, the rights of those people are taken away and their wishes are suppressed.

False pride is born – caste-practice creates a sense of self-respect and pride in the upper caste people and in this practice hard work

are not treated equally.

 

Caste

Regarding the concept or definition of caste, it can be said that it is mainly a lesson of people whose membership is based on heredity. It gets a certain place in caste-stratification. A caste is not a community or society itself, but a group of community or society whose society has a predetermined place and it is related to a certain occupation. Some important definitions are as follows
Herbert Risley, while giving the definition of caste, wrote, “A caste is a collection of families or groups of families bearing a common name, which trace their lineage from an imaginary ancestor, who may be a human or a deity.” claims origin, carries on the same ancestral occupation and is regarded as a homogeneous community by those who are entitled to make such decisions or votes. This definition makes 5 things clear – (i (i) a caste is a collective organization of several families, (ii) it has a name, (iii) each caste has an imaginary ancestor, (iv) it has a definite occupation and (v) it exists as a homogeneous community. Is known .
According to Majumdar and Madan (D. N. Majumdar and T. N. Madan), “caste is a closed class. It is clear from this definition that caste is based on birth. One has to live till the end. Membership of caste cannot be changed in any case. In this sense, caste is a closed class.
Dutta (N. K. Dutta) has written defining caste by including the maximum characteristics of caste, “Caste is a type of social group, whose members do not marry outside their caste, restriction on food, profession, are certain, stratigraphic division is found, change from one caste to another is not possible. This definition reveals 6 characteristics of caste – (i) caste is a social group, (ii) caste is endogamous group, (iii) there are restrictions on food and drink in caste, (iv) occupation of caste is fixed, (v) stratification is found in castes and (vi) membership of caste is not possible to change. Based on the above facts, it can be said that there is a dynamic system of caste stratification which is based on birth and imposes restrictions on food, marriage, profession etc.

Characteristics of Caste

1. S. Ghuryehas discussed 6 characteristics of caste, on the basis of which it has been said to be more useful to understand caste. These features are as follows
   Segmental Division of Society: The caste system divides the society into certain segments. The position, position and work of the members of each section is determined by birth. And they have a sense of community. Following caste rules is a moral duty.
   Hierarchy: Under the caste-system, the status of each caste is a dance of searching for each other. At the top of this stratum are the Brahmins and the lowest are the untouchable castes. These two people are of no caste. Not only this . There are many sub-castes within a caste and there is a distinction between high and low.
   Hereditary Nature of Occupation: The occupation of a person is determined on the basis of caste-occupation. Therefore, the caste in which a person is born, he has to adopt the personality of that caste. There is no scope for any change in it. Thus it can be said that the main feature of caste is traditional occupation.
   Endogamous: According to the caste system, the members of the caste can establish marriage relations within their own caste or sub-caste. Almost no one dares to violate this rule. Westermark has considered the specialty as the ‘essence of the caste system’. The endogamous rule is still found in castes. Thus, on the basis of above description, it becomes clear that caste system has been a clear and important basis of social stratification in Indian society.
   Restrictions on Fooding and Social IntereCHISE: There are restrictions related to food-drinking, social interaction and social interaction in the caste system. Often people of one caste do not accept food from the hands of lower castes. Along with this, many restrictions related to raw and pucca food are observed. Similarly, the feeling of untouchability is found in the context of social contact and interaction.
   Social and Religious Disabilities: Special differences are seen in the caste-system among the poplars. On the one hand, as many facilities and rights are available to the higher castes in the areas of life, the lower castes do not have that much. Brahmin is full of many rights in social, religious, economic and other fields. On the other hand, untouchable castes are deprived of even public facilities and rights. Even in rural areas its glimpse is seen.

 

Class
A group of people who have the same social status. Many situations are found in every society. As a result, many classes are also found according to them. When society is divided into different groups on the basis of some other than birth, each group is called a class.

Some important definitions are as follows
Maclver and Page have defined class as, ‘Social class is that part of the community which is separated from the rest on the basis of social status. It is clear from this definition that the basis of class is social status. That is, people of the same status form a class which is different from other classes.
In the words of Ginsberg, “Class can be called such a group of persons who are similar on the basis of occupation, wealth, education, lifestyle, thoughts, feelings, attitude and behavior or on one or two of these grounds.” But they should have the consciousness of equality which makes them aware of their own group or class.” Three things are clear from this definition that class is a group of persons, (ii) There are many bases of class formation – business, money, education. , life-style and attitude etc. and (iii) class consciousness, which is called class consciousness.
Mavers and Engels have written, “The coming together of different individuals forms a class only when they struggle as one class against another class, otherwise they, being mutual competitors, are opposed to a single ideology.” Or remain enemies. “It is clear from this definition that the basis of class is struggle. That is, it cannot be imagined without struggle. This struggle happens on the basis of economic interests. On the basis of the above definitions, it can be said that – It is a group which is based on social elements and which has the qualities of class-consciousness.

Characteristics of Class

Definite Hierarchy – Social classes are divided into certain categories. Some of these categories are high and some are low. Those who are members of the upper class have the least number of members but have the highest prestige. On the contrary, those who are members of the lower class, their number of members is more, but their importance and respect is the least. It is a natural consequence of this type of situation that the members of the upper class often take pride in staying away from the members of the lower class. In other words, social distancing is encouraged.

Achieved System: The basis of class is karma. A person can be rich or poor, industrialist or laborer, expert, professor, doctor, engineer or farmer on the basis of his karma. According to that his class is formed. This is how class is acquired. A person gets it through his own efforts.
Class Conflict: This feature has been mentioned by Marx. Marx says that the struggle between classes is the only element, which makes sense of the existence of classes in the society. Class cannot be imagined without struggle and this struggle takes place on the basis of economic interests. Thus, on the basis of the concept and characteristics of class, it is clear that class is a prevalent basis of social stratification.
Hierarchy: One of the main features of the class is called ‘hierarchy’. This means that there is a hierarchy of classes in the society in which there are several classes from the highest to the lowest. The stratification of high and low is clearly seen in these classes. According to this stratification, difference is seen in position, prestige and facilities.
Feeling of Superiority – Inferiority: The feeling of superiority and inferiority is seen in classes. Members of one class have a feeling of superiority or inferiority towards the members of other classes. For example, this feeling towards each other is clearly seen between the rich class and the poor class.

Common Life – Members of different sections of the society live their lives in their own special way. The way of living of the rich class is different from the middle class and lower class. The rich class takes pride in spending more and more. The middle class is often stuck in the customs and practices and the way of the lower class is completely different from both of these.

Importance of Economic Basis Economic status is the most important task of class formation. Modern society is capitalist or technological. In these societies, gender, age, etc. do not have a special relationship with class membership. Economically, prosperity or inferiority divides people into upper class, middle and lower class.

Openness and Shifting – Classes are open in nature. It means that if a person is specially qualified or skilled, then he can take membership of any class or can be a member of many classes simultaneously on different bases. Reflecting this position, Bottomore wrote that “whether social classes are relatively free or not, their basis is unquestionably economic, but they are more than economic groups.” It is also normal for social classes to fluctuate. Any poor person can join the rich class by becoming financially prosperous. Similarly, if the economic condition of a rich person falls completely, then he can slip from that class and go to the middle or lower class. This change in class status automatically happens according to the economic status.

Ajit Membership (Achieved Members)

It is clear from the above mentioned fourth and fifth characteristics of social class that the membership of the class depends not only on birth but also on ability, skill and economic prosperity.
hip) It is clear from the above mentioned fourth and fifth characteristics of social class that the membership of the class depends not only on birth but also on ability, skill and economic prosperity.
कूल्हे) सामाजिक वर्ग की उपर्युक्त चौथी और पाँचवीं विशेषताओं से स्पष्ट है कि वर्ग की सदस्यता केवल जन्म पर ही नहीं बल्कि क्षमता, कौशल और आर्थिक समृद्धि पर भी निर्भर करती है।
hip) It is clear from the above mentioned fourth and fifth characteristics of social class that the membership of the class depends not only on birth but also on competence, skill and economic prosperity.
हिप) सामाजिक वर्ग की उपर्युक्त चौथी और पाँचवीं विशेषताओं से यह स्पष्ट है कि वर्ग की सदस्यता न केवल जन्म पर निर्भर करती है बल्कि योग्यता, कौशल और आर्थिक समृद्धि पर भी निर्भर करती है।
One has to strive for the membership of the class. If a person belongs to a lower class, he has to prove his worth to enter the higher class. Permanently a person is able to live in the same class according to which he has merit.

Essentiality of Classes – The presence of classes in the society is essential. All people are not equal in terms of ability, functionality, interest, intelligence etc. So it is natural that individuals should Get position and respect according to merit. Only then can the social order be sustained. Classless society has been imagined in Marxism. But it is certain that such a society can never be established. ,

Less Stability – Money, education, business are of provincial and temporary nature, so the class-system based on them is also a stable concept. One who is rich today may be poor tomorrow.

Sub-classes – There are sub-classes under each class in the social class. For example, potti-varga on the basis of right over money in the rich class. Lakhpati-class Many sub-classes etc. Various sub-classes are found.

Life Chances – Max Weber has pointed out a characteristic of class called ‘Life Chance’. Accordingly, “We can call a group a class when its members have some specific opportunities of life in common.”

Class-Situation: Max Weaver has also drawn attention to this feature, which is related to life opportunity. The presence or absence of property in the possession of a class gives rise to a specific situation in which the class resides. If the members of the class have property, then naturally they will get opportunities to earn more money, buy more and maintain a higher standard of living etc. Combined, these opportunities will constitute the typical environment in which the members of that class must live. This is the Class Situation.

Common Life Style: Commonality is seen in the life style of the members of a class which on the other hand is also different from other classes. There is mostly similarity in the clothes, food habits, form of house, living conditions and manners of people of a class. Along with this, the family and matrimonial relations of the members of a class are also limited to their class-groups.

Class-Consciousness: Class-consciousness is the basic characteristic of class. This means that the members of each class have a sense of how their socio-economic-political position and prestige are in comparison to other classes. This is the feeling that binds the members of a class together.
Restricted Social Relations: The social relations of the members of a class are usually limited to their own class. Their eating-drinking, getting up-sitting and other interactive relations are with the people of their class. Also, they maintain a certain social distance from other classes. This is the limitation of social relations, which is a special feature of class.
Mobility: A special feature of the class is mobility. It is not based on birth, but it is based on ability, ability, that is, action. As a result, a member of a lower class can join the upper class on the strength of his ability and ability. In the same way a person can go down to the lower class through failure. Thus there is emptiness in the nature of classes. ,

 

 

 

 

Distinction between Caste and Class

‘ (1) The caste system is a closed class while the class system is an open or free class. The social status in a caste is determined by birth and there is no opportunity to join any other caste. On the contrary, the inequalities of man are recognized in the class system. In this, a person is given equal opportunities for progress. A person can enter from one category to another on the basis of his merit.

Individual ability and ability are neglected in caste. The situation in class is just the opposite. On the strength of his ability, a person can reach the upper class of the society.
3. Caste is seen as a closed system of stratification and class as an open system. Generally, the nature of classes is understood to be open, but in reality each class prevents the member of lower class from coming into its class and generally establishes relations only with the members of its class. Practically, the policy of class-endmarriage is also adopted between different classes. This is the reason why some scholars have not accepted any fundamental distinction between caste and class. Nevertheless, it is certain that there are different concepts of caste and class in their nature, functions and prohibitions which can be understood as follows

4. Caste is a closed form of social stratification while class is open. No person except one caste can accept the membership of another caste. The rules of each caste are also different from other castes. opposite class membership

The door is open to all. A person can become a member of any class according to his wealth, ability, skill.

5. The basis of caste membership is birth. The caste in which a person is born once, remains a member of that caste for life. But the membership of the class is based on the actions and efforts of the individual and he can change his class by his ability.
6. A person does not have to try to get the membership of the caste, rather it is given by the society. This is the reason why there is stability in caste. On the other hand, the membership of the class is entirely the result of the individual’s personal efforts and with the change in these efforts, the membership of the class also changes.

, 7. Every caste has a certain occupation and it is the moral duty of the members of that caste to earn their livelihood through that. But in the class system, a member can choose any occupation according to his interest and means.

, 8. Every caste necessarily compels its members to establish marriage relations within their own caste. On the contrary, there is no fixed rule of this type in class. Despite this, members of a class try to establish marriage relations within their own class. 6. The basis of elevation in class is economic whereas the status of caste is determined by the society. The basis of formation of castes are many religious and cultural beliefs. From this point of view, caste is a system of many rules related to purity and impurity. The class-system does not include any kind of beliefs related to purity or impurity.

9. In the caste-system, the profession is decided by birth. In the class-system, there is freedom to choose an occupation according to one’s will. ,
10. Membership of a caste is innate. He gets it automatically from the society. In contrast, class membership is earned. A person can enter from one class to another by his own efforts.

 

 

Role of Caste in Social Control

Caste system is a unique system of Indian society. In fact, the whole society is bound in the hierarchy of castes and sub-castes. Each caste has its own philosophy and rituals towards life. This feature has made each caste a complete world in itself. From birth to death, a person spends his life in the context of the behavior patterns and rituals of the caste. He is born in a particular caste, grows up, marries, mostly follows the occupation of the caste and finally after his death is cremated by the members of the caste community. But this does not mean that each caste is independent in itself and has no relation with other castes. The reality is that castes are functionally bound to each other, dependent on each other and mutually follow relations of exchange by customs. Jajmani system is a vivid example of this. Thus, to a large extent, the structure of Indian society is a reflection of the interrelationships of castes. M 0 N 0 Srinivas, while discussing the Indian social structure, has clearly written that, “Caste guarantees the autonomy of the community and at the same time it relates that community with countless other communities. In this way, the social hierarchy is established. The importance of an institution like caste is obvious in a vast country like India. There has been a confluence of many different cultures here in the past and there has always been regional diversity here. On the one hand, the caste system maintained the autonomy of the caste-sub-caste, so the existence of this autonomy could be maintained only if its members followed the norms and values of caste-behaviour. Through socialization, the ideals and values of the caste are internalized in the new generation in such a way that they become a part of man’s thinking and he goes on following them naturally. The caste system plays its role as an instrument of social control in the following ways;

(1) Control through indoctrination: Indoctrination refers to the indoctrination of patterns of thought and patterns of belief into the minds of human beings. MacIver and Page have written that, “Under all conditions, this process is the most powerful of all regulatory influences.” The caste system takes the most support of theory-teaching. Right from the beginning of the child’s life the beliefs and behavior patterns of the caste are codified in such a way that he considers them his own behavior and goes on following them automatically. The practice of untouchability persisted because of the teaching itself and even the castes called untouchables did not raise their voice against it for a long time. This indirect and informal method of social control by caste

(2) Control through rituals and customs – The rituals related to the life-order of each caste are fixed. Similarly his Teej – T

The practices of Yohar, major deities and marriage etc. are also different. By following rituals and practices, a person becomes habituated to behave in a specific way. Habit has been called the second nature of man. Apart from this, there is also support of public opinion behind the practices. They are considered prestigious because the name of ancestors is associated with them. Through these rituals and practices, each caste controls the behavior of its members. Their violation or opposition becomes difficult. Caste endogamy rule has been the most prevalent. The bond of marrying within one’s caste has been so strong that even today people cannot easily dare to break it. Similarly, the rules of eating and drinking have also been a means of control.

(3) Control through religious beliefs related to caste – The basis of caste system in Hindu society has been religious. Irawati Karve, explaining the nature of caste, has written that two fundamental principles of Hindu religion have been the supporter of the caste system – the principle of Karma and the principle of reincarnation. These principles made caste a divine product. Every person takes birth in a particular caste according to his karma. By doing actions in this birth according to his caste, he can get rebirth in a higher caste or attain salvation. These beliefs of Hinduism strengthen the control of the caste system. No one simply dares to challenge that control. He knows that caste is the result of his own past deeds.

(4) Control through priestly class – Max Weber, while discussing the Hindu social system, has made it clear that the priestly class has had a big hand in maintaining the caste system. There clearly remained a class of Brahmins who were both watchmen for the castes and also their judges. He was not only the director of the customs and rites, but he also arranged for punishment and atonement for the violators. Therefore, this priestly class was also an indirect controller for the members of the caste.

(5) Control through caste panchayats – Every caste has a traditional caste panchayat. It was the most powerful agency of control by caste. The caste panchayat used to deal with matters related to marriage, succession and determination of mutual obligations. The post of Chaudhary or head of the caste was mostly hereditary. Even today caste panchayats are active. These panchayats had adequate sanctions to control the members. They could not only impose fines, but could also punish caste-boycott, the biggest weapon. The person who was thrown out of the caste, the behavior of roti-beti used to stop with him. Not only this, daily social interaction with him also stopped. This situation is called ‘shucking off the hookah-water’. Thus, the caste panchayat has been a clear agency of control.

(6) Control through caste associations – Caste associations also emerged in the modern era for the improvement and upliftment of caste. These are formal organizations of castes that protect the interests of their members. It has also been seen that many sub-castes are now forming a federation. Through the donations and donations given by the caste union members, they establish a fund through which propaganda is done for caste reform and production. The interests of the caste are furthered through organized politics. These caste associations control the behavior of their members. Members follow their orders because they know that it is in their interest to do so. Caste unions are the formal and modern means of control by the caste.

(7) Control through mass media – Castes have also started using modern means of mass communication to organize their members and create mutual cooperation among them. Often these mediums are used by caste unions. The glorious tradition of caste history is published. It is often seen in the lower castes that they link their origin to a high class or great man in very ancient times, analyze the reasons for their downfall and claim to regain the old prestige or highness. Caste-related monthly or fortnightly magazines are also brought out, in which matrimonial advertisements are also published. In this way, the behavior of the members of the caste is induced through the means of mass communication. Such means of social control by caste are indirect means.

Changing Patterns of Caste System

After the establishment of the British Empire in India, new social, economic and political conditions took birth. Industries developed during the British rule and the feudal system came to an end. Industrial and monetary economy developed progressively. Due to the development of means of transport and communication, where the process of internal and cultural integration started, the caste system also got adjusted in political integration. Due to the influence of egalitarian ideas of Christianity, high and low caste

difference became only a blank and useless ideal. One result of the contact and multifaceted development of the Christian society was that the economic, social and ideological ideas that provided the basis for the caste system also started changing, as a result of which the multifaceted basis of caste also started changing gradually. After the attainment of independence in India, revolutionary changes have taken place in the taboos, ideals and fundamentals of the caste system. In the Indian Constitution, special care has been taken to eradicate the caste system and efforts have been made to remove caste differences from every point of view. Article 18 of the Constitution states that, “The State shall effectively promote the welfare of the people by establishing and preserving a social order in which social, economic and political justice is secured to individuals by all the institutions of national life.” The biggest attack on the system has been done by the ‘Prevention of Untouchability Act’ of 1955 AD. Thus, significant changes have taken place in the caste system and are taking place. Its traditional form is changing completely. Although the caste system has been changing to some extent in every time and era, but this change of the present is completely changing its structure, prohibitions and attitudes. We can understand these changes on the following grounds

Changes in Caste Structure

In the modern era, the form and fundamental basis of caste system is changing. The structural changes in the caste system can be understood on the following grounds

(1) Change in the segmental division of the society – Indian caste system has been presenting segmental division of the society. On the basis of this, this country is being divided into many groups and sub-groups on the basis of high and low. But today this feature of the caste system has completely changed. Today the sentiments of a person are not limited to caste alone. The determination of his position, business and duty is no longer based on caste but on personal merit.

(2) Change in the supreme status of Brahmins Historical study of the entire caste system shows that Brahmins have dominated the caste structure. Their power has been paramount, as a result of which they have always had a monopoly in the political, economic, religious and social sectors of the society. But today we see that this form is changing because the highness and lowness of life is no longer based on caste.

(3) Change in caste stratification – The caste system divides the society into unequal sections. But today we find that the concept of stratification has also changed. Today, many castes and sub-castes are trying to elevate and uplift their respective groups. M. N. Srinivas has considered this process of caste upliftment in the Hindu society as a process of Sanskritization.

(4) Change in the status of untouchable castes – Untouchable castes were given the lowest position in the caste structure. They were considered antyaj and many types of disabilities were imposed on them. But now their social status has also changed. Now they are an equal rights group and their rights in the social, economic and religious fields are at par with the rights of Savan. These modern ideas are also against the caste structure. From this point of view also there has been a change in the caste structure. Today all castes have started demanding equal rights from every point of view. Thus, there has been a radical change in the system of caste stratification which was there earlier. The most important change in this has happened in the condition of the untouchables and its effect has been felt on all castes and sub-castes.

Changes in Caste Restrictions

In the modern era, apart from the caste structure, changes are also seen in the field of caste prohibitions (which are the product of the caste system). The major negative changes can be understood as follows

(1) Changes in Marital Restrictions – Being an endogamous system, the caste imposes many types of restrictions on its members in relation to marriage. Mainly, each caste instructs its members to marry within their own caste and sub-caste. Apart from this, there have also been prohibitions of noble marriage, widow remarriage, Sapravara, Sagotra and Sapinda marriage. But in today’s era the matrimonial beliefs have completely changed and the above caste prohibitions are no more effective.

(2) Changes in the restrictions of social cohabitation – The traditional caste system also imposes restrictions on the members of its caste group on food and social cohabitation. But in today’s era these prohibitions have completely ended. The individual lives in large cities and his social relations are today directed more by his work than by his caste.

(3) Changes in profession-related prohibitions – One of the prohibitions in caste prohibitions has also been in relation to the choice of profession. Traditionally, a person did not have the freedom to choose an occupation outside his caste occupation. In today’s era, this basis of caste prohibition is also ending completely. Irrespective of caste, all the people in the urban society have started choosing business on the basis of their personal ability.

(4) Changes in prohibitions related to social and religious disabilities

The most important of the prohibitions have been the religious and social disabilities associated with the lower castes. Among the prohibitive changes that have taken place in today’s era, their end is noteworthy. Due to the efforts of Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian freedom struggle, these disabilities were almost eliminated and today the lower classes have also got equal opportunity for social upliftment. Now people of all castes have got the right to enter and use equally in religious, economic, social fields. Such forces are constantly active in urban societies which are making these prohibitions weak.

Changes in Caste Attitudes

Along with the changes in the structure and prohibitions, the attitude of the caste system which had gone into this society is also slowly changing. We attribute this change on the following grounds

1) Change in attitude regarding the high-low status of profession- In caste traditions, some statuses are set high and some are low level and people have been choosing professions from the caste point of view. This classification of professions has been related to the concept of purity and impurity of religion. People of low castes have been pursuing low professions and people of high castes have been pursuing high professions. But in today’s era, the notion of purity and impurity in relation to business has completely ended and the attitudes of the person related to the profession can also be seen changing.

(2) Change in the attitude related to the concept of birth – birth is important in the caste system. In today’s time, this notion of birth has changed. Today’s conscious, prudent and independent person considers the determination of reputation on the basis of birth as superstition and conservative thought. In today’s era, work and efficiency are more important, not birth. Thus, the fundamental basis of caste birth and its related attitude has been completely destroyed.

(3) Change in the attitude of the existence of caste – The caste system has been influencing and regulating the Indian society for centuries and the person has been accepting it naturally. Although even today the system of society is affected by it to some extent, but in today’s era, a person accepts caste existence only for the fulfillment of his political and economic interests and he is not able to accept it from his soul, that is, the existence of caste Approval has now remained only a means or medium. The educated and progressive class in the cities does not accept the fact that caste is a divine gift and one should act accordingly.

(d) Changes in the Cultural Aspect of Caste System If we look at the cultural aspect of the Indian caste system, we find that its basis is religious. The high-low profession within the caste, food restrictions, marital restrictions or the disabilities of the lower castes are all based on the idea of purity and on the basis of this belief, many interpretations of caste are possible. But in today’s era, we see that now this concept of purity is changing. Its basis is no longer religion, but its importance has been determined on personal effort, money, power etc. The meaning of saying is that in today’s era, the cultural aspect of the caste system is also changing completely. It is clear from the changes taking place in various aspects of the caste system that today the caste system has lost its traditional form and gradually its structural and institutional form is changing. Along with this, the economic importance of the caste system is also ending. Some scholars say that the class system is taking the place of caste.

Future of Caste System

What is the future of caste? Or is there any possibility of a casteless society in India? This is a question which is not easy to answer. On the basis of the changes taking place in the caste system, some scholars have expressed the opinion that the caste system has lost its original form and gradually its structural and cultural aspect is becoming loose, as a result of which the caste system has lost all its fundamental features. is getting lost Today economic and political bases are becoming more powerful bases of stratification than caste and some scholars have also started talking about the coming of class system in India in place of caste. But this argument cannot be accepted easily because it is also an illusion to think that such an old institution can be changed so easily. Not only this, many scholars consider caste to be helpful in democracy, national development and modernization and emphasize that caste is becoming stronger in Indian society than before. M 0 N 0 Srinivas (M.N. Srinivas) has written that, “It is a good matter of argument that there has been an increase in caste consciousness and organization in modern India. For example, look at caste banks, hostels, co-operative societies, dharamshalas, wedding halls, conferences and magazines in Indian cities. The increase in all these is a symbol of the fact that the caste is becoming stronger instead of dying. “K. M. Kapadia has also emphasized that there is a substantial and deep caste sentiment found in fifty-two per cent of the teachers (educated class) in India. Industrialization has certainly helped in changing its form but this even

Not getting According to T. B. Bottomore , ” . . . the effects of industrialization cannot be predicted and comparisons with Western countries can be misleading . . . because there are joint families And there is no caste system.” In fact, caste is a very ancient institution in Indian society with very deep roots. The proof of this is the existence of caste for thousands of years. Its confirmation by religion, illiteracy and the idea of karma and reincarnation have made it a strong institution even today. Therefore, it does not seem possible to create a casteless society by completely abolishing such an ancient and deep-rooted institution. In fact, the changes taking place in the caste system are like the changes taking place in any institution according to time and on the basis of these we cannot say that the caste system will end. In this context, M. N. Srinivas has rightly written that, “I want to tell you in clear words that, if you are thinking that we can easily get rid of caste, then you are making a serious mistake. . Caste is a very powerful institution and it will cause a lot of bloodshed before it is destroyed. ,

 

Is caste system changing into class system in India? Is Caste System Changing into Class System in India?

Caste system has been dominant in India since the beginning. As a result of the changes taking place during the British rule and several steps taken after the attainment of independence, the nature of the caste system changed. But, is the caste system in India turning into a class system found in western societies? This question is related to the boundaries of caste and class. Caste system is such a fragmented system of society in which cooperation is found functionally in different levels (castes). Class system is also a segmental system in which competition is found in different levels (classes). Another difference related to the boundaries of these two (as pointed out by Edmund Leach) is that in class societies the elite are the minority group and the majority of the lower classes are engaged in competition among themselves for the support of the elite. The opposite is found in the caste system, as dominant castes compete for the support of lower caste individuals. Are these two different systems of stratification found together in our society or only one? There is not much agreement among the scholars about this also. Many scholars have expressed the opinion that the class system (in the words of Marx, if the class system is seen from the point of view of class consciousness) is not found in the context of Indian society because caste system has been dominant here since the beginning. While scholars like Andre Beteille have expressed the view that the class system is found in Indian society. In fact, they are of the view that sociologists and social anthropologists have been more shy in studying the class system in India. Yogendra Singh while discussing the inter-relationship between caste and class in India has emphasized that caste and class coincide at the same point. This means that caste and class are inextricably linked. If we look at the caste system traditionally, we find that the upper caste people were generally economically superior as well (i.e. belonged to the upper class). Because the caste system has been a strong system in the Indian society, it has kept the class system under its sway and has not allowed it to emerge. People’s awareness and loyalty has been towards caste and not towards class.

Is caste turning into class in Indian society?

Today, important changes are taking place in the caste system due to urbanization, industrialization, westernization, sanskritization, modernization and development in the means of education, transport and communication. Its strict prohibitive tendency is becoming loose. The result of this is that the class system, which was earlier subsumed in the caste system, is now being separated from it. Also, today cooperation among castes (which has been the main feature of this system) is ending and its place is being taken by competition (characteristic of class system). Different scholars have mentioned different classes (like land owner class, capitalist class, labor class, tenant class etc.) found in the Indian society. But can we say on the basis of this change that the caste system is ending in our society today and its place is being taken by the class system? Probably not, because class system is emerging in our society, there is no doubt about it, but it marks the end of caste system, there are difficulties in accepting it. Although many structural and institutional changes are taking place in the caste system, yet it cannot be said that this system is ending in our society. If all the prohibitions related to the caste system are completely abolished and there is openness in it like the class system, then we will not have any difficulty in accepting this argument, but it is not so now, so it cannot be accepted that
Caste is turning into class in India.