The concept of Reference group formally originated in the field of Social Psychology. This field fuocuses primarily on the response of the individual to their interpersonal and more extended social environment. The concept of “Reference Group” was first introduced by H.H. Hyman in his book “The Psychology of Status” in 1942. In order to understand the concept broadly, we may distinguish between two types of groups-
(I) Membership Group and
(ii) Reference Group.
The group of which the individual is actually the member and which is his own group” is called “membership group”. But in practice, it can be observed that psychologically an individual can maintain his relation with such a group of which he is not an actual member, but even then attempts to include in his behaviour and action the norms, values and behaviour pattern of that outside group. Such group is known as “Reference Group”. It is the reference group of an individual in the sense that his behaviour, attitude, action and thought have a reference to the norms, values, and behaviour-pattern of that group of which he is not the actual member.
Definition of Reference Group
In the words of Sheriff and Sheriff, “Reference Groups are those groups to which the individual relates himself as a part or to which he aspires to relate himself psychologically. In everyday language, reference groups are those groups with which he identifies or aspires to identify himself.”
Otto Kleinberg has stated that “the groups with reference to which the individual fashions his behaviour and attitudes and belongs to them psychologically, even not being their actual member, may be called reference groups.”
Robert K. Merton has explained that “any of the in-groups or out-groups which become points of reference for shaping one’s attitudes, evaluations and behaviour, is his reference group.”
Essential elements of Reference Group
- Every reference group has a psychological basis. Reference group that group with which an individual maintains a psychological relationship, though he is actually not its member.
- Individual tries to assimilate in his behaviour and acfions, the norms, values and behaviour-pattern of his reference group.
- Many individuals can have a common reference group. Similarly. There can be many reference groups in a society.
- The reference group is “ideal” from the point of view of the individual; that is why he identifies or aspires to identify himself with that group.
- “Once a reference group, always a reference group” is not the rule. That means, an individual can change his reference group according to changing situation, time, place, intellectual level, etc.
- A reference group is usually a superior or higher group of which an individual is not the actual member. Individual has higher aspirations, so he relates himself with groups of higher status.
- Each and every reference group is “ideal” from individual’s point of view. But this does not mean that from the point of view of society also refrence group is essentially “idealt may not be so. It is ideal only for those who accept it as reference group.
Theory of Merton
The systematic data of Robert k.Mertonand A.s Rossi ‘s” The American soldier “ provide a useful occasion for examining Merton ‘s theory of Reference Group Behaviour Which has been further clarified and improved in Merton ‘s Social Theory and social structure” In this connection Merton ‘s conclusion is that the reference group of an individual can be both his member – ship group or “ in group “ as well as a non -membership group or “ out -group . In the first case , the members of his own in group can become frame of reference . According to Merton theory of Reference group behaviour explains as to how individual accepts an in – group or an out –grout as his point of reference . To quote Merton Reference groups are , in principle , almost innumerable : any of the groups of which one is a member , and these are compara-tivelyfew as well as groups of which one is not a member , and these are of course , many , can become points of reference for shaping one’s attitude , evaluation and behaviour.
Merton ‘s theory of reference group can briefly be stated as follows:
- Membership- Group as a Reference Group : It has been observed that on many occasions , an individual accepts that sub – group of his membership group as his reference group whose achievement are more than his own sub-group as his reference group whose achievements are more than his own sub-group . For soldiers , for example , that sub- group of soldiers becomes their reference group which won bravely medals or awards .
- Multiple Reference Group – Under this category Merton has mentioned two types of reference groups
(I) Conflicting reference groups are those groups which presents conflicting norms , values etc. They are attractive for the individual , but he fails to decide as to which one is better . He ultimately rejects that group which is totally strange and related to quite different conditions.
(II) Mutually sustaining reference group : Merton ‘s conclusion is that group is accepted as a reference group with which an individual remains in constant and continuous touch because of which that group exerts it’s influence on the individual in shaping in shaping his values , attitudes and behaviour .
- Significant Others : According to Merton , just like reference groups , there can be reference individuals also whom Merton calls as ‘significant others “ Such significant persons are “ideal ,, for the individual and therefore he desires to become similar to these “ significant other “ by accepting their values , ideals and behaviour pattern . In so doing the ultimate aim is to climb up on the social ladder to reach nearer to these significant persons or group of the persons.
- Conformity and Non-Conformity
In the opinion of Merton, the functional importance of reference groups is that they motivate the individual to conform to the ideals, values and norms of the reference groups with the result that the norms, values and ideates of the individual do not conform with the values, norms and ideals of the group of which he is the actual member, Therefore,
Conformity with non-membership group and non-conformity with membership group become the characteristic pattern of individual’s behaviour, norms, values and ideals. But such non-conformity is allowing end by his society or group only to the extent that it does not become dysfunctional.
- Non-Membership Group–
According to Merton, it is not essential that an individual must have actual inter-factional relation with a non-membership group to accept it as his reference group. He may only relate himself with that group psychologically or may only aspire to identify himself with that group. In that case also, that group will be his reference group.
- Positive and Negative Reference Group–
According to Merton, Reference Groups can both be positive and negative. This means that a reference group, say the group of one’s ideal teachers, by nature can be such as to exert wholesome and healthy impact on the individual and also a reference group, say a criminal gang, by nature can exert unhealthy influences.
- Selection of Reference Individual or Group
Merton has also explained The two basis or considerations on which a reference individual or group is selected by an individual-
(a) the selection can be on the basis of role-model. Some roles of others are liked much by the individual, and on the basis of this liking. He may accept a group or an individual as his reference group or reference individual. For example, he may like much the teaching method of a teacher and may, therefore, accept him as a reference-individual when he himself becomes a teacher.
(b) The selection of a reference individual or group can also be motivated by the desire of achieving higher social status and personal success. In this case, persons or groups better placed in social, economic or political field are accepted as reference group.
- Functional aspects of Reference Group–
Merton has mentioned certain functions as well as dysfunctions of reference groups. First of all, reference group motivates the individual to accept its values, attitude and behaviour-pattern. Consequently, not only many newer values, ideals, thought. Images and behaviour pattern are added to individual’s personality. But also their emerge possibilities of his going high in social status because of those new values, thoughts, etc. Thus, according to Merton, the function of reference groups towards anticipatory socialization of the individual is noteworthy. But when the reference group is of negative nature, its influence on individual can be dysfunctional. Also when the society is of closed or conservative
Nature, it does not tolerate such individuals who discard the accepted traditional norms, values and ideals and accept that of others. Such “betrayal” or change over is resisted and opposed by the society as a result of which the state of social tension and conflict emerges. There is another dysfunction of reference groups. As a matter of fact, an individual is alienated from the values, ideals and norms of his own membership group in the same proportion are accepts the values, ideals and norms of his reference group. As a result his adjustment with his own group becomes more and more difficult. From this point of view also the role of reference groups is dysfunctional.
REFERENCE GROUP THEORY
Reference group theory is one of the major contributions of Merton in sociological theory. This theory is appeared in the long papers, the first of which, written in collaboration with Alice S. Rossi, deals with the theory itself and second with continuities in the theory The concept “Relative deprivation”, which is given in The American Soldier by Samuel A. Stauffer, is central to theory of reference group.
Relative deprivation is utilised for the interpretation of variations in attitudes among different categories of men in relation to age, education, marital status and so forth. In order to highlight the connection of the concept of relative deprivation with reference group theory, it is essential to relate them with the notion of ‘others that represent non-membership or out groups. In this sense, a series A Concepts, such as, membership and non-membership groups, out and in-groups are involved. As Merton says, “Reference groups are, in principle, almost innumerable; any of the groups of which one is a member, and these are, of course, can become points of reference for shaping one’s attitudes, evaluating and behaviour” The important focus of inquiry in reference group theory is that people orient their attitude and behaviour toward the other members of the group to which they do not belong.
The main aim of reference group theory is “to systematise the determinants and consequences of those process of evaluation and self-appraisal in which the individual takes the values or standards of other individuals and groups as a comparative frame of reference” The precise nature of the theory of reference group can be better seen through a detailed conceptual analysis related to it.
Relative Deprivation
In developing the concept of relative deprivation, the authors of The American Soldier, on the whole, centred their attention on the deprivation component rather than the relative component of the concept. This concept is primarily used to understand the feelings of dissatisfaction, deprivation, or injustice among soldiers. Authors recognise that “”deprivation’ is the incidental and particularised component of the concept of relative deprivation, where as the more significant nucleus of the concept is its stress upon social and psychological experience as ‘relative’…. It is the relative component, the standards of comparison in self-evaluation that these concepts have in common”. It seems to me, therefore, that the concept of relative deprivation makes a ground for reference group behaviour.
The Concept of Group and Group Membership
The concept of group and it’s various typology are involved in the study of reference group. Merton expressed three ways to understand group and group memberships: Sociological concept of a group: It refers to a number of people who interact with one another in accord with established patterns.” Here, people are involved in the process of social interaction. This is only known as objective criterion of the group based on the frequency of interaction
(ii) A Second criterion of a group is that the interacting persons define themselves as ‘members’ At this point, their interaction are morally binding on all the members of the group.
(iii) The correlative and third criterion is that the persons in interaction are defined by others as “belonging to the group”. These other include fellow-members and non-members.
In this context, it is necessary to make distinction of social groups from social categories and collectivises. Social categories refer “to established statuses between the occupants of which there may be little or no interaction” On the other, all groups are collectivises but all collectivises are not group. The collectivises that are lack of involvement in the interaction among members are not groups.
The Concept of Non-Membership
Merton accepts the view that men and women try to stay in their own group. But what makes the study of reference group particularly interesting is that “they frequently orient themselves to groups other than their own in shaping their behaviour and evaluations”. Merton defines, “non-members are those who do not meet the interactional and definitional criteria of membership”.73 Non-members are always having tendency to become members of other group. But they differ in their attitudes toward becoming members. Merton analyses three ways to becoming members of a group:
(a) some may aspire to membership in the group; “
(b) others may be indifferent toward such affiliation; and
(c) still others may be motivated to remain unaffiliated with the group.Reference group theory has of course incorporated the first of these motivated attitudes toward membership as constituting one mechanism making for positive orientation of non-members toward the norms of a group” But for reference group, individual adopts the values and norms of a group to which he aspires but does not belong.
The Concepts of In-Group and Out-Group
William Graham Sumner has firstly introduced the concepts of in-group and out-group. In the words of Sumner a differentiation arises between us, the we-group, or in- A group, and everybody else, or the other-groups, out-groups.”
It is the fact that membership groups are not co-terminus with in-groups, nor non-membership groups with out-groups. Reference group theory treats both types of groups at all levels of social interaction.
Positive and Negative Reference Groups
Reference groups, outlines Merton, are of two types. Positive reference group, in fact, is synonymous with reference group. A Negative reference group whose norms and activities an individual guide to what he shall reject and oppose. Merton defines uses as a in his own words, “The positive type involves motivated assimilation of the norms of the group or the standards of the group as a basis for self-appraisal; the negative type involves motivated rejection, i.e., not merely non-acceptance of norms but the formation of counter-norms”.
The Concept of Anticipatory Socialisation
The consequence of conforming to the norms of a group other than own’s own is discussed in the concept of anticipatory socialisation. It “means that individuals begin to conform to the norms of the groups to which they want to belong in preference to the norms of the groups to which they actually belong”.7 Merton speaks of anticipatory socialisation in the context of non-membership reference groups. In anticipatory socialisation, only vertical mobility is possible. Anticipatory socialisation can be seen through different career patterns of life-medical student into doctor, graduate student into lecturer, lawyers into law firm partner, and recruit into member of the team, clerk into supervisor and so on.
Merton and Rossi further argue that although anticipatory socialisation may be functional for the individual, it can be dysfunctional for the group. For instance, conformity offers rewards to individuals and helps to sustain the structure of authority in the Group and in larger social systems. The foregoing discussion of the concepts of relative depivation, group, membership and non-membership, in and out groups, collectivises and social categories, positive and negative reference groups, and anticipatory socialisation is oriented to understand the reference group theory. To understand reference group theory, it is essential to discuss determinants and structural elements of reference groups.
Determinants of Reference Group
Merton emphasizes on the determining factors that one’s make choice to reference groups. Merton speaks of various possibilities, three in numbers, in which an individual takes the values or standards of other individuals or groups as a comparative frame of reference. These are reference individuals, selection among different membership groups and the selection of non-membership groups. Merton goes on to elaborate on the determinants that stimulate the same individual to choose different reference groups for different purposes.
- Selection of Reference Groups and of Reference Individuals:
The term reference group was originally introduced by Hyman. The term includes behaviour oriented both to groups and to particular individual. The individuals are interested to select not only reference groups but they select reference individual also. The reference individual, here, is similar to a role-model. In a reference individual usually more than one role, such as, charisma, status, and so on, is involved. The concept of role model can be thought of as more restricted in scope, denoting a more limited identification with an individual in only one or a few selected roles. but the person who identifies himself with a reference individual will seek to “approximate the behaviour and values of that individual in his several roles”. Merton accepts biographers, editors of “Fan magazines” and “gossip columnists” as reference individuals.
- Selection of Reference Groups among Non-membership Groups:
Merton is fascinated by non-membership group. At the same time, he warns that people are probably more influenced by the groups. However, he emphasized on why and under what circumstances men choose non-membership groups as their reference groups. According to Merton, there are three factors involved in the selection of non-membership groups. First, “the selection of reference groups is largely governed by the capacity of certain Soups to confer some prestige in terms of the institutional structure of society”. In this context, power and status are the major basis for the selection of non-membership groups.
Secondly, it examines that what kind of people generally Accept non-membership groups as their reference groups. Merton answers, I is generally the isolates’ in a group who may be particularly ready to adopt the values of non-membership groups as normative frames of reference”. The isolates’, who are supposed to be sensitive and rebellion, are more intense urge for mobility toward other groups in which they do not belong.
Thirdly, it suggests that “social systems with relatively high rates of social mobility will tend to make for widespread orientation so non-membership groups as reference groups” This factor is applicable to the people of open system in which anticipatory socialisation will be in function.
- The Selection of Reference Groups among Membership Groups:
Merton points out that there is general tendency among peoples to influence by their own groups. But the fact is “that non-membership groups constitute the excusive focus for reference group theory’s a person may belong to innumerable groups right from family to religious groups. Membership groups are mainly based on two frames of reference, i.e., normative and comparative. Normative are permanent in nature, whereas comparative are temporary. A membership group which is not going to last for long is unlikely to be chosen as a reference group is considered to be temporary in nature. For instance, a class of undergraduate students are only sat for short duration of three years is considered to be temporary. On the other hand, a group, such as, a kinship, or a caste group, or a professional group, stay for long time serve as a reference group is considered to be permanent.
Structural Elements of Reference Groups
The structural elements, which are centrally involved in reference group behaviour conceived as a social processes. In this context, the element of cbservability or visibility plays a major role in this process.
- Observability and Visibility; Patterned Avenues of Information about Norms, Values and Role-performance:
Reference group theory spumes that individuals compare their own lot with that of others me knowledge of the situation in which these other find we Themselves In other words, as Merton outlines, the theory of rlerence group behaviour must provide a medium through which knowledge is gained. Reference group behaviour must recognise the importance of the norms and values obtaining in the group that one has to follow it. In fact, visibility of both norms and of role-performance is required for the actual behaviour of members of the group. But the fact is that, in reality, it is difficult to have complete knowledge of these norms and of actual role performances. It is, argues Merton, mainly based on the structure of the group. At the same time, Merton believes that both norms and role-performance can be visible if the structure of authority is to operate effectively.
In addition, Merton accept a limit to the degree of visibility and observability. Here the notion of ‘privacy’ is essential to explain this fact. For instance, an authority from high level would automatically maintain secrecy at work because of various reasons. In short, “reference group theory”, argues Merton, “must systematically incorporate the variable of observability of norms, values, and role-performance obtaining in the group as a frame of reference”
- Non-conformity as a Type of Reference Group Behaviour
Merton has emphasized on “that conformist and nonconformist behaviour can be adequately described,…, only if this behaviour is related to the membership groups and non-membership groups taken as frames of normative and evaluative reference”.85 Non- Type of Reference Group Behaviour as a conformity, he explains, to the norms of an in-group is equivalent to conformity to the norms of an out-group. In the theory of anomie, he described various ways to understand deviant behaviour of the person in different type of social structure. As Merton rightly puts it, “In the language of reference group theory, therefore, attitudes of conformity to the official mores can be described as a orientation to the norms of a non-membership group that is taken as a frame of reference. Such conformity to norms of an out-group positive is thus equivalent to what is ordinarily called non-conformity, that is, non-conformity to the norms of the in-group.”
- The Structural Context of Reference Group Behaviour:
Role- Sets, Status-Sets, and Status-Sequences: In addition to observability and diverse types of nonconformity and deviance in the process of reference group behaviour, it is the need to examine the social orings urea of roles and statuses and the dynamics of role-sets, statuses, and status-sequences. Ralph Linton has recognised the two concepts-social status and social roles-are fundamental to the description and analysis of a social structure. “By status Linton meant a position in a social system occupied by designated individual, by role, the behavioural enacting of the patterned Expectations attributed to that position. Status and role, in these terms, are concepts serving to connect the culturally defined expectations with the patterned behaviour and relationships which comprise social structure”.
Merton defines role-set as “a particular social status involves, not a single associated role, but an array of associated roles” For instance, a medical student does not associated only with single status as a student but also an array of other roles relating to different statuses, such as, other students, nurses, physicians, social workers, medical technicians and so on. The concept of role-sets, here, important in the context of reference group theory. However, it is difficult to satisfy everyone in the role-set. In this context, Merton speaks of, “structural source of instability in the role-set”. Merton outlines, “the basic source of disturbance in the role-set is the structural circumstance that any one occupying a particular status has role-partners who are differently located in the social structure”.
At this juncture, Merton identified four important mitigating factor,” which reduce the impact of these conflicts or disturbances involved in the role-sets. First, a differential degree of involvement mitigates the effects of diverse role expectation. For instance, a role set among the college students, some are more and some are less involved in their relationship with the student. Second mitigating factor Merton discusses is that those in the role-set may be competing with each other for power but in some circumstances, their involvement in the conflict may give the role incumbent more autonomy. Merton’s third mechanism to alleviate role conflict is the insulation of role activities from observance by role-set members. Fourth mitigating factor, according to Merton, is the degree to which conflicting demands by members of a role set can be observed. If it is obvious that demands conflict, it is the duty of the members of the role-set and not of the role incumbent to resolve the contradictions. In addition to it, Merton suggests that the mutual Social support and withdrawal of control mechanism would be Hemphill to resolve conflicts of expectations among members of the role-set. This discussion of the role-set illustrates Merton’s emphasis on the analysis of dysfunctional elements and functional alternatives.
In addition to role-sets, the concept of status-sets and status- Sequences also constitute the problem in the context of reference group theory. It is, in fact, in the problem of articulation same as
That of role-sets. In status-sets, the same individual may find himself or herself in different status, such as, teacher, husband, mother, father, brother, sister, political leader, social worker, author, etc. Every status has its distinctive role-set. “Status-sets plainly provide one basic form of interdependence between the institutions and
Subsystems of a society. This stems from the familiar fact that the same persons are engaged in distinct social systems”. Merton points out that the major difficulty occur in organising their role activities in status-sets. For instance, an administrator may not do justice to his other statuses, such as, the status of a husband or the status of a father, because of his commitment to a larger public cause. However, Merton suggests the ways in which one can avoid the tension in the status-set. First. “People are not perceived by other as occupying only one status”. Secondly, the notion of empathy which helps you to sympathetically understand the lot of others. Empathy serves to reduce the pressures exerted upon people caught up in conflicts of status obligation.” Thirdly, the components of status-set are not combined at random. This form of combination reduces the possibility of conflict from both the psychological and social viewpoints. As Merton puts it, “values internalised by people in prior dominant statuses are such as to make it less likely that they will be motivated to enter statuses with lies incompatible with their own” Status-sequence, according 10 Merton, is the observation of sequences of role-sets and status in this seems, role-sets, status-sets, and status-sequences are interlinked to each other and they help to generate other problem for the functional analysis of social structure.