Migration
It is only in recent decades that natural growth has taken an increasing role in accounting for urban population growth. Cities traditionally grew through migration, a geographic process, as death rates matched or exceeded birth rates in the past. In the past, it was migration that contributed to urban growth.
Migration is the transfer of population from one geographical area to another. Migration is a multidimensional concept that includes both emigration and immigration.
Immigration is in-migration, which means that population enters one area from another.
Emigration is out-migration, meaning that a population leaves an area.
Net migration is the difference between immigration and emigration. Internal migration is movement within the borders of a nation.
In India, except in recent years when Muslims
There has been a significant increase, migration from abroad has been the most reliable
Population due to migration from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. In fact it is internal migration that has led to the distribution of population from east to west and north to south, even as the death rate has declined significantly, the birth rate has not declined that much. So development does not depend only on birth or death rate but on migration which is determined by many socio-economic factors. Migration constitutes the foundation of the urban process in India.
According to the Indian census, a migrant is one who is counted at a place other than his place of birth.
Why do people migrate?
Due to the mechanization of agriculture, labor has become surplus and this labor moves from rural to urban areas and as opportunities decrease in one area, and new opportunities arise in another area due to industrialization, physical mobility of population increases. As the size of society increases, a major factor contributing to mobility is the reorganization of productive activities and the readjustment that occurs between and within cities. This massive movement of people shows that the labor force is closely linked to the ups and downs of the national economy.
Rural-urban migration is mainly a manifestation of population explosion, poverty and stagnation of rural life which lead to the inability of people to move to cities.
The positioning of the manufacturing sector to absorb surplus labor shows that even migrants are usually forced to relocate due to push factors.
They are generally poor and this type of migration is less selective as survival depends on it. And distress migration to India is often caused by famine and drought. Migration is largely selective by ‘pull’ factors. Such migrants are usually attracted to cities for better job opportunities than the general population with higher levels of education and training and can actually shop for jobs. Those who are affluent are attracted by the glitz and life of the city. In India, landlords and business groups, who are better off and more educated than the population in rural areas, move to cities.
Internal migration in India presents a picture in terms of origin, volume, distance and direction which shows considerable dynamism and is increasing due to education, employment and better transport facilities. It is possible to identify 3 types of migration which all broadly indicate the relationship between distance and migration.
Short distance – outside the place of enumeration but within the district
i.e. known as inter district.
Medium distance – ie people who have moved outside the district but within the enumeration state within the state.
Long Distance – Persons born in any State of India but inter-state outside the State of enumeration.
As far as migration is concerned, a little over half of male migration and about 3/4th of female migration is short distance migration. Most female migration is confined to the marriage sector and male migration is in the context of employment sector. The other half of men travel medium and long distances because of the urban vibe. The number of such migrants has been increasing steadily, but it is mainly in Tier 1 cities. Migration can also be classified in terms of rural-urban divide.
rural – rural
urban rural
urban – urban
urban rural
The dominant form of migration in India is rural to rural, typically 90% of females and 50% of males belong to this category and they are influenced by socio-economic factors, which include marriage migration, out-of-village migration and associational migration in the case of males. are affected by. Migration can be seasonal and temporary (harvest time), especially if it is the first migration. In such times women are usually left behind.
The artisan classes in the villages, due to lack of demand for their goods, are often forced to move and work as agricultural laborers over short and medium distances. However there is also a reverse return or outmigration i.e. from urban to rural areas. This is especially true for the older group. From the economic point of view, it is rural-urban migration which is relatively long distance i.e. important. However it is less stable than that driven by traditional social forces. short term range; Such male migration is indicative of the vagaries of the job market and falls under the category of ‘up to your luck’, as it is motivated by the perceived advantages of the city. On the other hand, female migration driven by traditional forces has an inherent stability. Large cities, especially industrial cities, have a large proportion of long-distance migrants who are attracted by the facilities offered by the city and are willing to take up any job after becoming part of the street economy.
Also, massive turnover migration occurs as populations move from one area to another without actually being able to settle down. This geographic mobility need not be voluntary as often poor rural economic conditions push people into urban areas. but
What is more important is that they are often pushed back from urban areas to other urban areas.
are pushed because there are not enough jobs.
Urban-urban migration is short distance but usually a push-back factor that operates everywhere as a result of population growth and rapid growth in the labor force. Due to this unemployment and under-employment it is the migrants who are marginal who stay in the city in the hope that when job opportunities arise, they will be absorbed.
According to Dandekar and Rath, rural poverty has remained the same, but urban poverty has deepened as there has been an overflow of the rural poor into urban areas, this explains the loose settlements and ruralisation of urban areas.
The positive aspect of this picture is that as a result of development schemes and expansion of irrigation facilities in rural-based agriculture and bleak economic prospects in urban areas, potential migrants are discouraged from moving to urban areas, for example. Sharad Pawar had set up a plant in Baramati. In fact there may be some migration from urban to rural areas due to new employment
Megacities
definition of megacities
Megacities are cities that are expected to have a population of at least 8 million inhabitants. This definition was first propounded by the United Nations
(Department of International Economic and Social Affairs). This definition only looks at the demographic aspect of a city.
The Asian Development Bank modified this definition:
A megacity is defined as a large metropolitan area with a complex economy, a large and highly skilled labor force, and a transportation network capable of maintaining daily communication between all of its residents.
This definition goes beyond mere demographic criteria to include the complex economic system of the city. This includes a skilled labor force and a good transport network.
A megacity can be a single metropolitan area or two or more metropolitan areas that converge on each other.
The number of megacities is increasing in less developed countries. 2 in developed Japan and 2 in developed U.S.A. Less developed Asia has 9 compared to 2 in the United States.
5 largest megacities Tokyo 35 million as of 2003
Mexico 18.7 million
New York 18.3 million
Sao Paulo 17.9 million
Mumbai 17.4 million
By the year 2015 these figures will have changed to 36 million in Tokyo.
Mumbai 22.6 million
Delhi 20.9 million
Mexico 20.6 million
Sao Paulo 20.0 million
Population growth is highest in urban areas of less developed regions, this is because:
rural to urban migration
Transformation of rural settlements into urban settlements.
Metropolises in the developing world attract people who are looking for a better lifestyle, higher standard of living, better jobs, less hardship and better education.
characteristics of megacities
- Large Service Area
- Small Scale Manufacturing Sector
- A large and generally inefficient government sector
- substantial unemployment
- Low productivity of employed people
There is also a large informal sector of employment in family enterprises and small enterprises ranging from peddlers to small retail stores, which is quite separate from the formal sector of large companies and government. Added to this is limited job mobility, inadequate transportation to jobs for poor citizens, lack of legal protection for workers (mainly the informal sector).
What happens in the megacities of the developing world affects the rest of the world.
High population density, poverty and limited resources make the megacities of the developing world an environment that favors the incubation of diseases ranging from cholera to tuberculosis to sexually transmitted infections, which in an age of rapid communication have become increasingly common in the rest of the world. can be promoted.
Terrorist attacks against embassies, businesses and travelers affect the developed world.
Megacities in both the developed and developing world are often places where social unrest frequently occurs. Historically Paris and St Petersburg which gave rise to the French and Russian revolutions.
The rate at which their residents migrate to other regions and the competitive challenge presented by their cheap labor force.
The ecological effects of megacities extend to all other regions of the world. air pollution.
They are major instruments of social and economic development. Megacities are strong indicators of both present and future conditions.
Location. They have become the means of dramatic birth rate reductions, they are the sites of cultural and educational institutions that promote social development and they are powerful means of economic concentration.
They provide new market opportunities for both the developing and developed world.
Problems of mega cities :-
1) Explosive population growth
2) An alarming increase in poverty (which contradicts the reasons for attracting megacities)
3) Severe lack of infrastructure in terms of telecommunication services, availability of transport and presence of congestion.
4) pressure on land and housing
5) Environmental concerns like contaminated water, air pollution etc.
6) disease, high
Mortality, infection, lethal environmental conditions.
7) Economic dependence on federal or state governments that constrains the independence of megacity administrators.
8) Lack of capital, this is the factor that shapes a megacity’s economy and exacerbates its other problems, from infrastructure to environmental degradation.
9) Unemployment problem
Today there are 61.5 lakh unemployed in the world, i.e. one billion
More jobs will have to be provided over the next 25 years, a large proportion of which will be in megacities.
The problems are increasing rapidly as megacities are experiencing too rapid growth with which they cannot cope and with this the population moving to megacities for a better life has even higher expectations that megacities cannot handle are over capacity.
Global City
For a long time cross-border economic processes of capital, labour, goods, raw materials, tourists have flown. But to a large extent these took place within inter-state arrangements, where the principal actors were the national states. The landscape has changed dramatically in the last decade, with the onset of globalization and other developments such as privatization, liberalisation, deregulation, international economic partnerships. It is in this context that we see the re-measurement of strategic areas that characterize the new system.
The term global city was first coined by Saskia Sassen. A global city is designated by the number of headquarters. Thus global city is a status that is seen as beneficial and hence many cities especially in third world or developing countries are trying to achieve this status.
Elements in a new perceptual architecture:
Globalization of economic activities involves a new type of organizational structure. Constructs such as the global city and the global city area are important elements in this new conceptual architecture.
Global City Model: Organizing Concepts
The geographic dispersion of economic activities that characterizes globalization as well as such integration
Geographically dispersed activities have been a major factor feeding the growth and importance of central corporate functions.
These central functions become so complex that increasingly the headquarters of large global firms outsource them; They outsource a portion of their core functions from highly specialized service firms – accounting, legal public relations, programming and other such services.
These specialized service firms engage in the most complex and globalized markets, subject to agglomeration economies. Thus being in a city is synonymous with being in a very fast and intense information loop.
Since all central work is outsourced by the headquarters, there is actually less work at the headquarters, so they are free to choose any location.
The growth of global markets for finance and specialized services and the diminishing role of government in regulating international economic activity has led to the existence of a series of international networks of cities.
The growing number of high-level professionals and specialized service firms earning high profits has the effect of increasing the degree of spatial and socio-economic inequality in these cities.
Retrieving Location and Working Process:
Due to the emphasis on excessive pricing of specialized services and excessive mobility of capital, other aspects constituting economic activity such as location and process of production which are equally important are being ignored and the focus is on work process. being focused. This is accompanied by an emphasis on spatial and economic inequality or polarization due to the disproportionate concentration of high-income and low-income jobs in these global cities.
Impact of new communication technologies on centrality:
The most important question here is how new technologies of communication change the role of centrality and therefore of cities as economic entities. Centralization remains a key feature of today’s global economy. CBD (Central Business Districts) in major international business.
The centers have been deeply reconfigured by technological and economic change.
The center may extend over a metropolitan area as a grid of nodes of intense commercial activity.
Hence there is a re-definition of a region where traditional forms of communication infrastructure like the traditional grid i.e. railways and airport linked highways have now been replaced by the latest grids; Expressed through cyber routes or digital highways. Places falling outside this new grid of digital highways are cordoned off.
The connectivity of global circuits has brought with it a significant level of development but the question of inequality has not been addressed.
Global city as a nexus for new political-cultural alignment:
This examination of globalization through the concept of the global city emphasizes the strategic components of the global economy, instead linking the dynamics of wider and more widespread homogeneity with the globalization of consumer markets. It also emphasizes questions of power and inequality. It also emphasizes the real task of managing, servicing and financing the global economy.
A global city is thus specified by the number of headquarters. Global cities around the world are areas where globalization
The plurality of processes takes concrete, local form. These local variants are about, well, globalization. Today’s big city has emerged as a strategic site for new types of operations – political, economic, subjective “cultural”. this is one of the nexus
Incorporation of cities into a new cross-border GE
The biography of centrality also indicates the emergence of a parallel political geography. Major cities have emerged as a strategic site not only for global capital but also for the trans-nationalization of labor and the formation of trans-local communities and identities. In this respect, cities are a site for new types of political operations and a whole range of new “cultural” and subjective functions.
migration
It is only in recent decades that natural growth has taken an increasing role in accounting for urbanisation. Traditionally, cities developed through migration, which is a geographical process. Migration is a multidimensional concept which includes both emigration and emigration to India. Development does not depend only on birth or death rate but on migration which is determined by many socio-economic factors. Hence migration lays the foundation for the process of urbanization in India.
According to the Indian census, a migrant is one who is counted at a place other than his place of birth. It is possible to identify three types of migration which broadly indicate the relationship between distance and migration:-
Short distance, medium distance and long distance.
This can also be explained in terms of rural-urban breakdown:- rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-urban and urban-rural.
megacity
Megacities are cities with a population of at least eight million inhabitants. It is defined as a large metropolitan area with a complex economy, a large and highly skilled labor force, and a transportation network capable of maintaining daily communication between all of its residents. The rise of megacities is predominantly rural to urban
Migration and transformation of rural settlements into urban settlements. Megacities are characterized by substantial unemployment, large service sectors with low productivity, small manufacturing sectors, a large and generally inefficient government sector, among many other characteristics. There are many reasons why the developed world needs to pay attention to megacities. There are also many problems faced by megacities which include explosive population growth, alarming increase in poverty, overcrowding, pressure on land and housing disease, high death rate and many other serious problems.
global city
It includes an entire infrastructure of activities, firms and jobs that are necessary to drive an advanced corporate economy. These industries are generally conceptualized in terms of their high dynamism of output and high level of professionalism. There is an emphasis on economic and spatial polarization in global cities due to the disproportionate concentration of very high and very low income jobs in these major global urban areas.
The growth of networked cross border dynamics between global cities covers a wide range of domains: political, cultural, social and criminal. Cross-border transactions occur between immigrant communities and communities of origin, and the use of these networks, including economic activity, tends to intensify once these networks are established. The global city also has greater cross-border networks for cultural purposes, as in the development of international markets for art and an international class of curators; and for non-formal political purposes, as in the development of international networks for environmental causes, human rights, and similar activities.
Suburbanization, Satellite Towns,
Rural-Urban Fringe, Peri-Urbanisation
The rapid growth of metropolitan cities has also brought about spatial dispersal of urban areas. Cities have expanded in an haphazard and unplanned manner into their surrounding rural areas. There is a reverse flow of people from the city to the rural areas. The agricultural land of peripheral villages is converted for industrial and residential use, thus leading to suburbanisation, satellite towns, rural-urban fringes and peri-urbanisation.
suburbanization
In 1950 Charles Zeublin said that ‘the future does not belong to the cities but to the suburbs’. Suburbanization is often seen as a solution to urban problems and at other times it is seen as a cause of urban ills.
The concept of suburbanization is largely vague and ill defined.
Douglas defined suburbia as a “belt of population” living in typically roomier conditions that average city dwellers, but in typically more crowded conditions than those of the surrounding open country. whether they live inside or outside the city. In this definition, according to the United States Census, suburbs are areas located along the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) but outside the central city.
Suburb refers to an area of the city outside the central city but within the urbanized area. The de-concentration of activities and population from the city to the surrounding fringe areas is a phenomenon of the 20th century and is known as suburbanization. It indicates redistribution of population, trade and industry.
Suburbs may be incorporated or unincorporated but must be socially and economically dependent on the central city. Thus, in essence, they are large density communities near large metropolitan centers. The population found here is urban and not rural in character, the economy is non-agricultural and the social structure reflects their interdependence on the nearby big city. Residents usually identify with both the suburb and the city.
Factors in Suburban Development
Population: The most obvious factor affecting the overall suburbanization process is population growth. The components of this urban growth are threefold – natural growth, rural to urban migration and ethnically diverse migration from abroad. Different factors influenced urban development at different times in history. In examining the numerical aspect of a country’s population, urban researchers often overlook another important aspect – the values held by citizens. Value
Individuals’ location on lifestyle, housing type and neighborhood character influence their locational judgement.
Organization: Institutions ultimately determine how and where the resources of the nation are to be utilised. The government has influenced suburbanization with its various loan programs, explicit grants to suburbs to build water and sewer systems, and highway construction programs. The private institutional sector has been equally important in influencing their marginal development.
Environment: The supply and cost of resources and the availability of land have influenced both the location of cities, their potential growth, and the process of suburbanization.
Technology: Just as elevators, the telephone and telegraph and structural steel made possible skyscrapers and central business districts as they are known today, inventions such as the septic tank, efficient electrification and the internal combustion engine made the modern suburbia a reality. Of all the technological innovations of this century, those in transport have been the most significant in affecting the spatial structures of cities. Cities tend to bring people together at one point, but the better the available transportation, the more dispersed the population is possible.
“POET” are key factors in the analysis of the development of suburbs and any change in one element affects all other elements and causes a change in the degree and pattern of suburbanization.
Suburbanization in the Indian Context
A suburb in India primarily implies a location near the periphery of a metropolitan city. The rapid growth of such cities in India has led to a spatial spread and in most cases the cities have expanded in a haphazard and unplanned manner into the surrounding rural areas. To be designated as a suburb, a place does not have to be a legal town or a recognized administrative area. Major cities like Mumbai, Calcutta, Chennai have suburban railway lines which pass through a number
Rural-Urban Margin, Periurbanization: Introduction
The walled cities of ancient and medieval India were isolated from the surrounding rural areas. The physical city limits were then clearly defined by the walls, moats, and other protective structures that surrounded the city. The gates, few in number, provided the only regulated points of entry and exit into the city.
Inside the walled city lived an urban class of people engaged in non-agricultural occupations, and in villages outside the city, lived rural people who were mainly engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry. The town and the countryside were clearly divided by a clear and distinct boundary town wall. Even where walls were absent, the boundary between the traditional Indian town and rural village was abrupt and clearly defined.
Even today, the boundaries of all small and big cities and one lakh cities are also clearly demarcated. Even a casual observer in these places will notice the point where urban areas suddenly give way to areas of rural land use. The situation is very different in the case of
Metropolitan cities and some of the million plus cities. The physical expansion of built-up areas around these major urban centres, beyond their municipal limits, has been very distinctive. Most of this development has happened in a spontaneous, haphazard and unplanned manner. Essentially rural villages beyond the municipal limits have now been markedly replaced by urban residential, commercial and industrial complexes. The city has entered
In some cases deeply, in rural areas. The term rural-urban fringe has been used to designate areas where we have a mix of rural and urban land use.
Origin of event
The phenomenon of the rural-urban fringe is a recent phenomenon around Indian cities, although its occurrence around western cities was observed much earlier. India before 1950. The main reason for the absence of rural-urban boundary was the very slow growth of cities during that period. Any small increase in a city’s population is usually absorbed into existing residential areas, it is only with an influx of new migrants into the city that the city’s residential areas are no longer able to absorb the growth, and The city begins to expand physically, first through the development of vacant land within the city and later by the gradual encroachment on land in areas outside the city limits.
By thinking Sometimes new migrants, especially the poor; Sections live in villages around the town and go to their work place.
During the British period, many villages around the existing cities and metropolitan cities were displaced to gain space for the construction of new cantonments and civil lines. This process continued throughout the nineteenth century and in some cases even up to the period of the Second World War. During the 19th century, there was no real need for physical expansion of towns and cities, given a stable or declining urban population, and in the first half of the 20th century, urban population growth was still modest, and found Sufficient space within civil lines and cantonment areas, where the density of population was very low. The expansion of towns and cities throughout the British period was limited to the development of new cantonments and civil lines – otherwise, towns and cities showed no evidence of growth during this period, and all remained within the city limits. Native’
The towns within the city were often congested, but were not allowed to expand beyond the city limits.
The post-independence period has seen a sea change, with rapid growth of residential and other urban land uses in a haphazard manner. Private land developers, industrialists and business men interested in making quick profits played a significant role in bringing about the physical expansion of the city. The villages on the city’s periphery, which had hardly any administrative or political clout, were an easy target for the manipulative tactics of the new urbanites, both rich and poor. Unlike their western counterparts, most rural people in India were against money. So completely helpless are the power of the new industrial and commercial elites that in fact they often voluntarily fall prey to monetary inducements. The net result: urban land use has a distinct presence in rural areas surrounding rapidly growing cities.
The physical expansion of the city inevitably brings concomitant changes in the social aspects of life in the fringe villages, with the development of industry, commerce, administration and educational institutions, arts and health generating employment for the rural population. The jobs, even if of an unskilled nature with low pay, are invariably welcomed by the rural community, who in the past had to depend on a precarious and precarious living by farming, or those who wish to continue farming The fast growing city provides a growing market for vegetables, fruits, milk etc. These market forces lead to significant changes in rural land uses and even in the attitudes and values of traditional rural people.
In fact, the rural people change, their lifestyle imperceptibly but significantly over a period of time and adopt a semi-urban lifestyle, thus we have the emergence of a semi-urban society – between rural and urban societies. a transitional phase.
Rural Urban Margin, Periurbanization: Meaning and Definition
Weberwen, an American land economist and social scientist was the first to define the rural-urban boundary. According to him, it is a zone of transition between well-recognized urban land use and an area devoted to agriculture.
Blizzard and Anderson have attempted a more specific definition. According to him, the rural-urban boundary is an area of mixed urban and
Rural land use between the point where full urban services are available to the point where agricultural land use predominates.
Urban boundaries from the point of view of Indian cities and villages: –
The area around an Indian town consists of revenue villages with clearly defined boundaries. Near the city, the revenue villages exhibit urban characteristics with some rural features. After a certain distance from the town, the urban features disappear and the village becomes distinctly rural. The problem of delineating the rural-urban boundary therefore involves identifying villages with mixed rural and urban characteristics and then separating them from their purely rural counterparts.
The rural-urban boundary is an area of mixed rural and urban population and land-use, which begins at the point where agricultural land-use appears near the town and extends to the point where villages separate from urban land. uses or where some persons, at least, from the rural community commute to the town on a daily basis for work or other purposes.
Rural-Urban Border Structure
The town and surrounding area essentially comprises two types of administrative areas: (a) the municipal town or town panchayat and (b) the revenue village or gram panchayat.
Municipal towns differ in terms of their distance from the main city. Closer to the core city, especially the smaller municipal corporations “lose their identity” and are actually part of the geographic city. The level of municipal services in these towns is as good or worse as the core city, away from the core city, municipal towns have their own distinct identity and a distinct set of problems related to urban amenities and transport.The provision of amenities in these towns is unrelated to the main city and of very poor quality.
The non-municipal areas around the city, ie revenue villages or gram panchayats, show a complex diversity. Agricultural land converted for some current or potential urban residential or industrial use
Fully urbanized with lots of Mi. others are only partially affected; In yet others the land-use is entirely rural, the only link with the town being the daily commute. The result is a complex structure of rural-urban fringes.
Transformation of Frontier Villages
Villages beyond the limits of a rapidly growing city undergo a process of change which ultimately results in their complete absorption within the physical city. This process of transformation of the fringe villages can be seen from two opposite sides: (a) the people of the main town and (b) the people of the village.
There are two fundamental aspects of the changes taking place in the frontier villages;
- a) Change of land use within the village
- b) Changes in the social and economic life-style of the people of the village.
The mechanism of both changes involves interaction between the town and the village in both cases. In any case, the nature and intensity of the interaction between the town and the village increases with time.
In order to understand the process of change more clearly, five stages of change of border villages have been identified:-
rural forum
Initially, villages located far away from the city and just outside the fringe area remain unaffected by the presence of the city. In particular, there is no daily movement of people from village to city for employment or for sale of agricultural produce. However, there are occasional visits to the town for medical facilities, purchase of expensive wedding clothes, purchase of agricultural equipment, etc. Visits to the town are occasional and irregular, and only better-off farmers attend such visits.
For the most part, the people of the village carry on their traditional occupations of farming and village crafts and services. There may be electricity in the village, but there are hardly any street lights. The streets are always kutcha and the drainage system is conspicuous by its absence. The village is not connected to the main city by bus service. The houses in the village are mostly made of mud and thatch, and there are very few brick houses. Houses with more than one storey are rare and cement is rarely used in construction. The physical form of the village is not static, as even in remote areas one has to face social and morphological changes. The basic criterion to differentiate rural villages from border villages is the lack of daily contact between town and village.
stage of agricultural land use change
The initial impact of the city is seen on the agricultural land-use in the village. The town provides a market for products that the village is in a position to supply, such as milk, vegetables, flowers and fruits. Some enterprising farmers in the village may see this opportunity and take advantage of it, eventually leading to daily contact with the city. Recent studies of such villages have shown that generally lower and intermediate castes and marginal farmers have taken advantage of the town market. Rich and upper caste farmers consider it beneath their status to engage in this trade.
What exactly triggered this development, this commercialization of agriculture in the village, is difficult to determine, but two factors must be mentioned. have to do first
The growth of urban population and, consequently, the demand for products such as milk and vegetables. The second factor relates to the improvement of transport facilities, especially the construction or improvement of roads and the introduction of bus services.
stage of business transformation
In this stage, the village population responds to the employment opportunities in the city. In the initial period, salaried employment is sought at the lower end of the scale, as unskilled workers work in factories, as watchmen in offices, peons, gardeners, and sweepers in government and commercial offices. In most cities, the informal commercial sector is dominated by people coming from marginal villages. Some become daily wage earners by doing odd jobs, others are self-employed as vendors, hawkers, barbers etc. in the city. However, it is again the lower castes, and especially the artisan castes, that take the initial steps in this direction.
A concomitant change in villages relates to the value attached to education and more children are sent to schools, both within and outside villages. The upper castes, who do not want to be left behind, usually take the initiative for higher education so that their children can get better jobs at clerical and supervisory level in the city. In this they often succeed to such an extent that even in the city the social distance between the upper and lower castes is maintained.
The process of business change goes on continuously. As long as most of the families in the village have at least one member working in the city. Farming is done as before, but the major responsibility for it lies with those people who have not acquired any educational qualification due to some reason. In the process, a new category of part-time farmers also emerges, and as a result the actual agricultural work gradually shifts away from the farmers.
Peasant castes for landless laborers. Those who do not own land play a bigger role in agriculture than before. At the same time, women also contribute more labor and time in farming. Very few girls in the city go to school or seek employment.
This phase marks a big jump in terms of spatial mobility of the village population. Village Always City Bus Save
When a village is connected to a village, either as a terminal point or as an important point in the network, the village’s economy changes in a number of ways. Shops selling a variety of urban consumer goods are visible within the village itself. Transistor television sets and other electrical and household gadgets are found in many village homes. There has been a rapid increase in the number of bicycles, scooters and motor cycles providing greater personal mobility. There is a change in dress and even in eating habits. The houses are rebuilt using cement and bricks. One storey houses are being replaced by two storey and even three storey houses. Although basic a facilities. Like any visible improvement in water supply, sewage disposal and drainage.
stage of urban land use growth
To begin with, some plots of farmers’ land in the village are bought by city real estate agents, and developed into residential colonies or industrial sites. The new residential colonies have been given names that are completely unrelated to the village, but reflect the current trend in the town.
Plots in residential colonies are sold to city dwellers; This has been made possible by the growing awareness among the urban people about the location of the village and the demand for land. Land values in the village increase rapidly as the potential for urban land-use is recognized in both the village and the city. The process of land acquisition and its development for urban use starts slowly initially, but picks up speed within three to five years. As more and more of the village’s agricultural land is acquired for urban uses, the village’s farmers are forced by circumstances to give up farming altogether. The development of new residential colonies within the village has changed the village to a great extent.
Not only does the population of the village suddenly increase, but it also splits into two different social categories. The old village settlement remains almost intact with its original inhabitants, while the new residential colonies are inhabited by city dwellers. The people of the city belong to various caste, linguistic and regional groups. The village’s population is now highly heterogeneous, a fact that is not reflected in census data. Social ties between the old village and the residents of the new colonies are more and more tenuous and superficial. At times, a third component is introduced into the field. belong to this social group
New immigrants from rural areas who came to the city in search of employment. Finding urban areas more expensive, they settle in marginal villages, sometimes near factories, high-rise unauthorized slums located along roads, near drains etc.
With increasing physical evidence of urbanization around the village, the site of the village also receives some attention. Piped water supply, drainage and street lighting have been introduced. All this improvement in the village site has been made possible by the inflow of money through the sale of land and income from employment in the town. There is a progressive decline in the importance of agriculture as an occupation and the way of life in the village is becoming increasingly urbanised.
Urban Village Stage
The final stage in the transformation of a fringe village is reached when all land formerly in agricultural use is taken over for urban use. There is no agricultural land now. In many instances, the original villages are surrounded by low quality residential areas and illegal slums. With the increasing pressure of population on the town especially the poorer sections are forced to seek accommodation within the original village site. Thus, the original village population acquires a new character with a mixture of natives and newcomers. With overcrowding comes further deterioration in the level of civic amenities. The neglect of buildings and poor sanitary conditions reduce the urban village to slum status. The dignity of the original village has been lost, replaced by a den of crime and illegal activities including bootlegging. The urban village continues to exist until it is cleared for ‘redevelopment’.
suburbanization
The rapid growth of metropolitan cities has also brought about the spatial spread of urban areas. Cities have expanded in a haphazard and unplanned manner into the surrounding rural areas. There is a reverse flow of people from the city to the rural areas.
Agricultural land in peripheral villages is converted for industrial and residential use. In these newly developed areas, city dwellers migrate in search of better and cheaper housing. These areas often lack basic urban amenities. However, they are outside the purview of municipal taxes and regulation, and this acts as an incentive for new housing construction.
Suburbanisation is essentially a development of metropolitanisation, but still differs from it in terms of migration and its attendant problems. The term “suburb” refers to a place near the periphery of a metropolitan city. Suburbs are defined as urbanized nuclei that are located outside but within accessible range of central cities. They are politically independent but economically and psychologically linked to the services and facilities provided by the metropolis. They have substantial population density and predominantly non-rural occupations and typically urban forms of recreation, family life and education. suburbs different from cities
Huh. There are different types of suburbs.
satellite city
A satellite city is considered to be a city with a metropolitan fabric that has a more diffused growth pattern of development. In some aspects, satellite cities are smaller versions of metropolises located outside the rural-urban boundary. They can also be defined as self-contained, politically independent and formally organized townships. The main function of satellite towns is to decongest the metros and it does so through a fourfold process.
- By distribution of population
- By stopping the flow of population to the main centre.
- By distribution and relocation of industries and services.
- Stopping the drain on the city’s already overburdened resources.
rural urban limits, peri-urbanization
The rural-urban fringe is an area of mixed urban and rural land use between the point where full urban services are no longer available to the point where agricultural land use predominates. It is an area of mixed rural and urban population and land-use, starting from the point where agricultural land-use appears and extending to the point where villages have distinct urban land-uses or where Some people, at least, commute daily from the rural community to the city for work or other purposes. The phenomenon of rural-urban fringes is a recent phenomenon around Indian cities, its phenomenon was observed much earlier around western cities. There are mainly two types of administrative areas in the structure of rural-urban border:-
- Municipal Town or Nagar Panchayat
- Revenue Village or Gram Panchayat.
There are two basic aspects of the changes taking place in the marginal villages:-
- Change in land use within the village.
- Change in the social and economic life style of the village people.
Five stages of transformation of fringe villages or peri-urbanisation have been identified.
Rural level: where there is no daily movement of people from village to town for employment especially for sale of agricultural produce. However, there are occasional visits to the city for medical facilities, expensive clothing or agricultural equipment.
Stage of agricultural land-use change: In which the initial effect of the city is seen on the agricultural land-use in the villages. Here the town provides a market for products that the village is in a position to supply, such as milk, vegetables, flowers and fruits.
Occupational change phase: In this phase the village population reacts to job opportunities in the city, a concomitant change that occurs in the villages is related to the value attached to education and more children are sent in and out of school Is.
The process of occupational change progresses rapidly until most of the rural households have at least one member working in the city. This phase marks a big leap in terms of spatial mobility of the village population as the village is connected to the city by bus services. The whole material and non-material aspects of culture have changed in the village with the village selling urban goods. However, there is no visible improvement in basic amenities like water supply, sewage disposal and drainage.
Stages of Urban Land Development The process of land acquisition and development for urban land use is recognized in both the village and the city. More and more agricultural land in the village is acquired for urban use and the farmers in the village are forced to give up farming altogether. With increasing evidence of urbanization around the village, introduction of piped water supply, drainage and street lighting, the importance of farming as an occupation is seen to decline progressively and the way of life in the village increasingly getting urbanized.
Urban Village Stage
The final stage in the transformation of a fringe village is reached when all land formerly in agricultural use is taken over for urban use. The dignity of the original village has been lost, in its place a den of crime and illegal activities. Until it is approved for redevelopment, the “urban village” continues to exist as a virtual slum. The “urban village” is in practice and in theory an integral part of the city because it no longer has any agricultural land around it, but is surrounded on all sides by urban land use.
Suburb – A location near the periphery of a metropolitan city. Suburbs are defined as urbanized nuclei that are located outside but within accessible range of central cities. They are politically independent but economically and psychologically linked to the services and facilities provided by the metropolis. They have substantial population density and predominantly non-rural occupations and typically urban forms of recreation, family life and education. Suburbs are different from cities.
Satellite cities – cities with a metropolitan fabric that have a more diffused growth pattern of development. In some aspects, satellite cities are smaller versions of metropolises located outside the rural-urban boundary. They can also be defined as self-contained, politically independent and formally organized townships.
Rural-urban fringe: The rural-urban fringe is an area of mixed urban and rural land use where full urban services are not available, to the point where agricultural land use occurs.
Dualistic Labor System; Slums: Profile Of An Indian Slum
unit structure
two
litigant labor system
Economic dualism is said to be characteristic of India and other industrialized countries, with two sectors, the formal (organized) and the informal (unorganized), living side by side. They reveal structural dualism in urban economies in terms of size, mode of production, organizations, technology, productivity and labor markets. More recently, a belief has emerged that economic growth and development need not be based on a large-scale and highly formalized economic structure. Now there is a development strategy, which lays emphasis on the development of the small, unorganized and informal sector.
Two facts justify these assumptions. One is that, despite high rates of industrial growth and overall modernization, a large proportion of activity in urban economies in most developing countries continues to be in the unorganized sector. The second is that the informal sector reveals some positive characteristics with respect to its ability to generate employment and the uniform pattern of distribution. It is therefore likely that an emphasis on the informal sector has the potential to effectively reduce urban poverty.
In Böcké’s classical interpretation, the phenomenon of dualism refers on the one hand to an urban market economy generally of a capitalist nature and on the other to a rural subsistence economy characterized primarily by a stable agricultural system of production.
Less controversial is the notion of a certain socio-economic dichotomy that arises at a different stage of development, a process that invokes, or at any rate reinforces, the modern and traditional capitalist versus non-capitalist, in contrast to industrial urbanism. Production of the difference between agricultural rural mode. These economists see cities with their modern industries as dynamic centers from which the static character of the rural system, characterized by stagnant agriculture with very low labor productivity, can be gradually overcome. But the assumption that the surplus labor thus available will be absorbed in the modern sector does not stand out.
During the last few decades, we have seen that the expansion of industrial employment opportunities has lagged far behind the growth of the urban labor force. The urban dichotomy that is evident today in many developing countries is not due to the slowly disappearing distinction between a modern-dynamic growth pole and a traditional static sector that has survived strongly in the urban environment, but to the overall economy. is due to structural disturbances within and society. The low rate of industrialization and the presence of surplus labor have been listed as major reasons why a dualistic system has emerged in Third World cities. The informal sector comprises a group of the working poor whose productivity is much lower than in the modern urban sector, most of whom are excluded.
The term informal sector was first introduced by Hart (1971), who described the informal sector as that part of the urban labor force that falls outside the organized labor market. The informal sector has since been greeted as a promising concept and further refined by a mission from the International Labor Office (ILO), which studied the employment situation in Kenya within the framework of the World Employment Programme.