Types of Sociological Theories

Types of Sociological Theories

It is difficult to say anything with certainty about how many types of sociological theories are, because if we assume that mature theories have not yet been formed in sociology. So the question of their classification does not arise. Even then . What we today call sociological theories have been classified in various ways. Some of the major classifications are as follows

 


As far as sociological theories are concerned, Merton says that “Six types of sociological works are considered synonymous with theory.

 

(1) Methodology,

(2) General sociological interest,

(3) Analysis of sociological concepts,

(4) Post-factual sociological interpretation,

(5) research generalizations in sociology, and

(6) Sociological theory refers to a logically interrelated pair of propositions from which research similarities can be derived.

(a) Walter Wallace has divided sociological theories into eleven categories

 


(1) Social functionalism – In this, theories related to social interactions (such as Weber and Parsons’s theory) are included. Cooley and Mead have also tried to formulate sociological theories on the basis of social interactions.

 


(2) Functional imperativeism – These theories express the functional relations and imperatives of the units of totality (such as the principles of Merton and Parsons).

 


(3) Ecologicalism – In this, the principles related to human ecology (such as the principles of Lipley and Moore etc.) are included. In other words, it can also be said that in such theories an attempt is made to explain the internal relationship between man and his non-human environment.

 


(4) Materialism – In this, an attempt is made to give an explanation of social life on material basis (such as the dialectical materialism of Marx and the theory of historical materialism).

 


(5) Demographicism – In this, the relationship between population and human environment is established (such as the theory of Malthus and Sadler).

 


(6) Technologicalism – In this, an attempt is made to explain the effect of technology on human life (such as Marx, Veblen and Augbon’s theory of social change).

 


(7) Psychologicalism – In this, an attempt is made to give an explanation of human behavior on a psychological basis (such as Cooley’s theory of socialization). Tard’s ‘theory of imitation’ is also placed in this category.

 


(8) Conflict structuralism – In this, an attempt is made to explain the struggle in the elements of social structure (Marx’s theory of class struggle). Such theories recognize that the conflict found in social life is the basic element of social structure.

 


(9) Symbolic interactionism – In this, an attempt is made to understand social interactions on an objective basis (such as the theory of Cooley, Mead and Thomas). Some scholars are of the opinion that such theories are related to the discussion of subjective behavior.

 


(10) Exchange Structural – Emphasis is placed on the formation of structures due to exchange of units participating in social life (such as Weber’s theory of organization) and

 


(11) Functional structuralism – In this, emphasis is given on the study of structure and functions (such as Merton’s theory).

 


(b) Don Marindale has mainly divided sociological theories into the following five categories:

 


(1) Sociological functionalism – It is concerned with the discussion of the functions of the building elements (organs or units) of society (such as the theories of Spencer, Durzheim, Malinowski, Radcliffe-Bown, Merton and Parsons).

(2) Conflict theory It is related to the explanation of conflict found in human life and society (such as the theories of Hohns, Hume, Marx, Oppenheimer, Small etc.).

 


(3) Positivistic socialism – It describes society as an organism (eg Comte, Spencer, Ward, Tonnies, Pareto’s theory).

 


(4) Social Behaviorism – It is concerned with the explanation of social behavior (such as the theories of Giddings, Ross, Mead, Coolen, Parsons etc.) and

 


(5) Formative Theory – It is related to the forms of social relations (such as the theories of Veerkant, Liple, Max Dewar etc.) Sociological theories are divided into the following categories on the basis of their scope of work, nowadays most scholars

 


(1) Grand or macro theories,
(2) Middle range theories and
(3) Micro theories.
 


The above three types of theories are divided on the basis of their study area and field of study. Broad theories are based on large studies, micro theories are based on micro studies, while mid-range theories are based on the range between these two types of studies. Also , the approach of larger studies is wide . microscopic studies

 

It takes an integrated approach to mid-range studies. Pratishtha or grand theories are made after studying the big problems in detail and have more universality in them. opposite of this . Micro theories are based on small scale empirical studies and lack universality. Explaining the difference between these two, Don Martindale has written, “The distinction between these two is made entirely on the basis that what is the size of the unit a researcher chooses as the subject of study for propounding his theory. If the study is done by the combined approach of both without adopting any of the macro and subtle perspectives, then the theories built on the basis of such studies are called middle-boundary theory. The credit for propounding these theories is given to the American sociologist Robert K. Merton.

 


In the words of Merton, “Middle-boundary theories are those principles which on the one hand provide short but workable hypotheses that appear abundantly in day-to-day research, and on the other hand, to explain all the observed similarities in social behavior, social organization and social change. They are situated in the midst of systematic efforts to develop a coherent theory.” From Merton’s ideas it becomes clear that mid-range theories are a category between macro theories and subtle theories.

 

Calvin Larson says that sociologists have used sociological theory in the following sense:

 


Concept – Perceptual Administration – Vocabulary – Constructed Types | 2 Citation Context – Conceptual Scheme – Context.
Intellectual Imagination – Sub-imagination – Theorem – Hypothesis – Organizing.
Proposition – Axiom Statement – Rule – Generalization |
Replication – Logical – Deductive Method – Mathematical Formulation |
Ideal Form – Word Formation – Drafting – Continuity.

 

Gis says that theories must have three characteristics

 


-1 . to be called more formally

, 2. to be testable,

Having the ability to predict.

 


Homans has divided the general principles into two categories.

 

(1) Normative and
(2) Non-normative.
 Normative theories explain how individuals should behave in order to achieve goals. Non-normative theories emphasize the explanation of the actual behavior of individuals.

 

Jonathan Turner has mentioned four main elements of the theory

 


(1) Concept,
(2) Variable,
(3) Statement, and
(4) Outer (Format) |
 

(1) Concept – Theories are made from concepts and concepts are made from definitions. Definition is a system of terms such as a sentence, an argument or a symbol or a mathematical formula. Concepts have a special role in theory formation. They bring uniformity in the item used. Their second main feature is that they reveal subtlety. Some concepts represent gross events and some concepts represent subtle events.

 


(2) Variable – From the point of view of theory, there are two types of concepts and (1) related to nominal (qualitative) events, and (2) related to quantitative changes. In general, other types of concepts in theory making. In these ‘Parivay-qualities’ are found.

 


(3) Theoretical Statements – Concepts are related to theoretical statements. Statements indicate the state or existence of an event. The concept of environment refers to the variation in an event, for example, the greater the degree of conflict in social units, the greater is the degree of unity in each unit.

(4) Format of Theory – Theoretical statement or structure should be arranged in an orderly manner. There are two outliers of theoretical structure in social sciences. (1) Axiomatic process, and (2) Causal process. (1) Axiomatic declarative exteriorization – Axiomatic declarative process consists of three elements (1) It consists of a series or pair of concepts. (2) In this – existential statements are found which indicate the situations to which the concepts and related statements are applicable. Turner has called this principle ‘field conditions’. (3) Relative statements are said in the form of steps. At the top of the hierarchy are the axioms from which all other statements are derived. 

 

 

 

Wagner has divided sociological theories into three categories.

 


(1) Positive sociological theories,

(2) Interpretative sociology and

(3) Non-scientific or evaluative theories.

 


positivist theories

The proponents of sociology consider sociology to be equal to natural science. Theories like neo-positivist, structural-functionalism and social behaviorism are examples of this category. The proponents of explanatory theories consider sociology to be a social science as opposed to a natural science. Examples of this category are cultural interpretation, interpretive sociology of action and interaction, social phenomenology etc. Supporters of unscientific or evaluative social theories consider sociology to be neither a direct science nor an explanatory science. Social-philosophical theory, ideological-social theory and human reform theory are examples of this category.

 

 

Problems of Theoretical Construction of Sociology:

 

 

Theory building is a process. This process passes through several stages. Each stage is scientific and diverse. Since sociological theories are based on the practical study of complex and variable social phenomena, they are accurate, deep, systematic and long-term conclusions. Therefore, the process of theory formulation is also complex. Just as a researcher has to face many types of theoretical and practical problems during research work, similarly a theorist has to overcome many obstacles in the formation of sociological theory. A researcher completes the study of social phenomena in some way. After that the classification of the facts obtained, He has to exercise great care in tabulation and analysis. After that, on the basis of these facts, the rendering of conclusions is also very difficult and debatable. But theory building is a process even further. No conclusion of a researcher can be made the basis of theory. The novelty, scientificity, accuracy and rationality of the conclusions are such points which have an important place in the formulation of the theory. The slightest carelessness of a theorist can destroy the theory. Overall, theory building is a challenging task. Some of the problems a theorist may face in the formulation of the theory are: Reality and rationality are such points which have an important place in the formulation of the theory. The slightest carelessness of a theorist can destroy the theory. Overall, theory building is a challenging task. Some of the problems a theorist may face in the formulation of the theory are: Reality and rationality are such points which have an important place in the formulation of the theory. The slightest carelessness of a theorist can destroy the theory. Overall, theory building is a challenging task. Some of the problems a theorist may face in the formulation of the theory are:

 (1) Perceptual Complexity –

 As Turner also believes, concept is a key element of theory formation. In theory formulation, it is absolutely necessary for the conceptual provision to be scientific, clear, logical and accurate. It is often seen that the concepts in sociology are not solved technically, that is why sociological theories do not become universal. Attention needs to be paid to this.

(2) To change the nature of data

The basis of theory is empirical study. These studies are done in relation to a social phenomenon (which is often in the form of a social problem). The facts collected after empirical study are in the form of nouns. Nouns do not speak. It is a difficult task to draw any conclusion on the basis of them, whereas it is necessary to have the conclusions for the formulation of the theory. In this form, it is a challenging task to give qualitative form to these numerical facts.

 

(3) Lack of universality –

 Social events are the basis of sociological theories. Social events are directly related to country, time and situation. It is not always possible to apply the conclusions of an event that happened in one country, time and situation to another country, time or situation. The sociological theories being built on this basis should also be considered in every way.

Cannot be applied. This position is against universalism whereas sociological principles should be universal in nature.

 

(4) Variability of social events –

A thorough study of any social phenomenon takes a substantial amount of time. By the time the study of social phenomenon is completed, conclusions come out from it. By then, there is a possibility of change in the nature of that social event. In this situation it becomes difficult to formulate any theory. At the same time, social events are complex and complicated. It is not easy to understand them completely through study. How can a scientific sociological theory be replaced when the study itself and the conclusions derived from it are confused and ambiguous?

 

Importance of Sociological Theories:

 

Sociological theories have an important place in sociology.

 

Abraham has tried to draw our attention to the following eight functions of sociological theory:

 

 (1) Sociological theories point to possible problems and meaningful hypotheses that form the basis of new investigations or studies.

 (2) Sociological theories help in making predictions about facts. A semantic theory, being based on insightful knowledge, historical analysis, and observation of social similarities, provides a solid foundation for forecasting.

 (3) Sociological theories organize the relationship between subject matter and facts and provide a simple conceptual plan.

(4) Sociological theories provide a link between specific empirical findings and sociological orientations and thereby increase the significance of research.

 (5) By providing meaning, sociological theories also attest to the truth.

(6) Sociological theories guide the research and also delimit the range of facts to be studied.

 (7) Sociological theories are also instruments of investigation. They provide assistance in the preparation of research design.

(8) Sociological theories point out the errors in our knowledge and help to correct them.

 

Historical Beginnings of Sociology

(evolution and development)

This subject has developed in an attempt to understand the radical changes taking place in Europe and the problems arising out of them. Today sociology is considered an important subject both from the theoretical and practical point of view. In all the countries of the world, this science is gaining a leading position in comparison to other social sciences, a person is a curious creature due to his nature and due to this curious tendency, he has learned various types of social, economic and social sciences prevalent in his time from the very beginning. Trying to understand political problems. Various aspects of society have been mentioned in different ways in the ancient texts of India. For example, Vedic literature and Hindu scriptures (such as Upanishads, Mahabharata and Gita etc.) give a systematic description of many important social aspects like varna and caste system, joint family system, ashram system, various rites and credit system, which are important in today’s sociological sciences. not less than any of the parameters of the analyses. Aristotle’s book ‘Politics’, Plato’s ‘Republic’ and Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ are such texts in which various aspects of society have been discussed.

Although the study of social aspects has a long tradition, the emergence and development of sociology as an institutional subject occurred in the 19th century when Auguste Comte first used the term ‘sociology’ in 1838 AD. He was of the view that there is no single subject which can study various aspects of society as a whole. To overcome this shortcoming, he created this new subject. Although the sociology of the nineteenth century has been considered as a positive science, whose influence was similar to the natural sciences, yet it was evolutionary due to the influence of the philosophy of history and biological theories. Along with this, studies related to the entire life and entire history of man were done, that is, its nature was encyclopedic. To understand a new science like sociology, it is necessary to study its origin and development.

 


The origin and development of sociology is due to the social conditions of Western Europe. The Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Enlightenment played an important role in its development. These not only led to the development of a new method of economic activity (called capitalism) in Western societies, but they also had a profound effect on the social structure of these countries.

With the development of secular outlook, social mobility, increase in education and employment, migration from villages to cities, many social problems also started developing. The number of industrial laborers and agricultural laborers increased and they started being exploited in production work. A large number of Africans were enslaved in the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries to serve capitalism. Although slavery began to decline in the beginning of the nineteenth century, it is still practiced today in the form of bonded labor in many colonial countries. Sociology has developed as a result of the scholarly thinking about all these changes and problems.

 


In the 19th century, many intellectual and physical conditions helped the development of sociology, out of which four intellectual conditions have been considered important by T. B. Bottomore.

 


The following are the circumstances

(1) Political Philosophy,

(2) The philosophy of history,

(3) Biological theories of evolution and

(4) The movement for social and political reform. Two of these, the philosophy of history and the social survey (which began as a result of the movements), made important contributions in the beginning.

 


The philosophy of history as a distinct branch dates back to the eighteenth century, initiated by Abbe de Saint-Pierre and Giambattista Vieo. The general idea of ​​progress which he tried to create seriously influenced the conception of history of man. The influence of philosophy of history is clearly visible in the works of Montesquieu and Voltaire in France, Herder in Germany and Scottish historians and philosophers such as Ferguson, Miller, Robertson, etc. can be seen.

 


The philosophy of history became a major intellectual influence in the early 19th century as a result of the writings of Hegel and Saint Simon. The works of Karl Marx and Auguste Comte developed from these two thinkers. The new concept of society, which is different from the notion of state, is the product of philosophical historians. The second important element helpful in the development of modern sociology can be called social survey, which had two main sources – first, the belief that the methods of natural science can be used in the study of social phenomena and human activities and second, the belief that Poverty is not nature or divine wrath but human effort.

It can be removed by These movements for social reform as a result of both these beliefs were directly related to the social conditions of Western Europe of the 18th and 19th centuries. Due to the interest in social change, attention was paid to historical and social movements. All the early thinkers associated with the development of sociology were influenced by the social, economic and political conditions or forces prevailing in Western Europe in the 19th century. This is the historical background from which sociology emerged.

 


many scholars; For example, Baldridge has described the then social, economic and political conditions which inspired the development of sociology. These conditions are as follows

 


(1) Rapid and revolutionary social change – Baldridge has rightly written, “The more rapid change that was taking place in the 19th century, did not happen at any other period in history. Three of these rapid social changes in this century were the main reasons

(i) Industrial Revolution – 1750 AD is considered to be the beginning year of Industrial Revolution in England. This revolution was completed in about a hundred years i.e. 1850 AD. This revolution introduced the use of large machines in the process of production of goods. These machines are the root sources of power; For example, they were powered by steam. Technology based on the use of machines in production started modern industries. Instead of land, industries became the main source of wealth. The old cottage industries collapsed. To work in factories and factories, laborers started coming and gathering. Hand artisans became unemployed and were forced to work in factories. Large quantities of raw materials began to be consumed for mass production. The expansion of the market also became necessary for the sale of manufactured goods. It became natural for the countries of Western Europe to seek international markets. Industrialization destroyed feudalism based on land income.

As a result of the mutual competition of the industrialists and the tendency to earn maximum profit, the condition of the workers in the factories became pathetic. 12 14 Hours It was natural that women and children were also employed in the mines because they were cheaper laborers than men. There was no provision of air and light. There were no rules for compensation even if the worker became ill in the business or in case of mutilation or death in an accident. The industrial cities had become a witness to the painful poverty that surrounds the prosperity. The old social values ​​and traditions were no longer helpful in meeting the needs of the common people. New values ​​and traditions were not fully developed.

(11) Urban Revolution – It is clear that industries started in the cities. Thus, rapid urbanization took place. Migration from villages to cities helped to spread the ideals and values ​​of urban life to the towns and villages. The development of a social system based on formality got impetus. The increasingly complex division of labor and specialization also contributed to this urbanisation. The invention of the steam locomotive brought a new revolution in the field of transport. A network of railways began to be laid in every nation. This led to an unimaginable expansion of not only the transport but also the communication vehicle. Urbanization led to the decline of small agricultural communities.

 

 

 

(iii) Political ups and downs Although parliamentary power reached its zenith under Cromwell’s leadership in England only in the seventeenth century, when King Charles I was sentenced to death on 30 January 1649, French political The revolution (1789-1799) put the final stamp on the development of democracy. Earlier, the revolution in America (1783-1789) proved to be a necessary link in the development of a system of people’s participation on the basis of democracy, equality in politics, fraternity and freedom. The 19th century has gradually become the century of the development of the republican system. These revolutions affected human society on a global scale. Baldridge has rightly written that “The political ups and downs – which started in the last years of the 18th century by the French and American revolutions shook the society. These revolutions played the trumpeter of the process of destruction of monarchy and feudalism.”

 


(2) Confrontation with different cultures – The process of colonizing the countries of Europe – Spain, France, England, Portugal, Denmark – in America, Africa and Asia had started in the 16th century itself. In the 19th century, the empires established by these powers in different countries were at their peak. As a result, the people of Europe came into contact with societies which were completely different from them. He saw that in the world there are great variations of marriage, family, religion, ideals. In human societies social life has been successfully organized and structured on the basis of various ideals and values. These cultural contacts had two natural consequences – first, vast facts about human societies were gathered, on the basis of which it was easy to arrive at general conclusions about the structure and dynamics of human society. Second, experiences with different cultures made the inhabitants of Europe their

He also inspired to take a critical look at the society. Thus, social criticism gained legitimacy.

 


(3) Scientific Revolution – In the 19th century, the physical sciences achieved unprecedented achievements. In fact, this scientific revolution had started in the beginning of the 17th century itself. In the words of historian Edwin Dunbaugh, “The term (scientific revolution) refers to a change in attitude that occurred over 1600 years in the way of studying the natural world. It was burned that he dared to say that the universe is infinite. By 1700 AD Sir Isaac Newton, who was trying to find the laws of how the infinite universe operated, was considered to be Europe’s greatest Considered a respected person. Due to the inclusion of experiments and empirical research in the methods of study of the world, a phase started in the field of science which changed the form of society, social life from top to bottom. It was natural. that these scientific methods be used in social studies.In the 19th century it was emphasized that scientific approach and method should be used in understanding social structure and problems.

 


(4) Climax of secularism – It was only in the first half of the 19th century that secularization reached its climax. This process was initiated in the Renaissance in Italy, which lasted from 1350 to 1550. This process was also strengthened by the political literary events that took place in Europe from 1715 to 1789 AD. In fact, in Europe these 75 years are called the ‘Age of Reason’. For centuries Europe had been influenced or governed by religion (the organized church). Every sphere of honor’s life was influenced by religion. to say anything against religious texts or priests

It was considered to be propaganda of superstition, whose punishment was to be burnt alive by tying it to a pole. The king was also considered to be the son of a god, who had the divine rights of the ruler. Under these circumstances there was nothing for the common man in this world except persecution, they were born there to atone for their sins. So he could only imagine getting some happiness in the other world after his death. The process of Renaissance started in Italy, Protestant rebellion and scientific achievements freed man from the shackles of religion. All these powers instilled faith in secularism in the mind of the common man. Secularism does not mean ‘opposition to religion’ or ‘neutrality to religion’ or ‘secularism’.

It means that the world is real. Human life is very rewarding. He can improve his material condition by his hard work. Religion is a method of worship and gratitude towards God and it should be confined to that only. It is his duty to make progress in his business. By earning money from him, he can live in this world with opulence and happiness. This is his absolute right. He can make additions, amendments and changes in his social, political and economic system judiciously. Not only is he capable of promoting this worldly life, but it is his moral duty to do so.

Religion should be kept beyond these matters. Social, economic and political activities are secular activities, not religious activities. This secularism emphasized the ideals of equality, efficiency and order for the governance. Established ideals like humanism, equality, fundamental rights of the individual and free social mobility for the social structure. Thus, many such religious injunctions that were against the study of society disappeared by the first half of the 19th century. This paved the way for the scientific study of society. (5) Social problems and their scientific study – Industrialization gave rise to many problems. We would like to quote Baldridge again as he wrote in a very precise commentary on the problems of 19th century European society, “

Social conditions became particularly difficult in the 19th century as the Industrial Revolution and rapid urbanization led to very deplorable conditions. Child labor, agonizing shoplifting, common disputes, horrific housing conditions, the disastrous consequences of centuries of war had all become part of the social scene. “It was natural that the attention of the thinking intellectuals would go towards this. They started thinking scientifically on these problems. Their scientific explanation and solution became the focus of their curiosity. This gave impetus to the idea of ​​​​restructuring society. For example, Marx At the root of these problems was the exploitation of the proletariat by the affluent class and suggested its solution in the proletarian revolution itself. Studies also proved the importance of social survey. (6) Many social reform movements – Many social reform movements emerged in such times. Social messages and ‘Mukti Vahini’ were religious movements that were working for social reform. The emergence of major labor unions, which were committed to protecting the interests of workers and improving working conditions.

Political parties emerged which were formed on the basis of new-consciousness based thought-philosophy. The French socialist thinker Saint Simon suggested that the administration of industry and government should be synonymous with the aim of serving the maximum interests of all.

 

 

Be fulfilled. Charles Fourier started the movement that the state should be abolished, instead society should be formed in small ideal settlements (phalanges) and every person should get the right to do the work for which he is most suitable. Is .

 


In England, Robert Owen (1771-1858) established an ideal factory, which was to be administered by the workers themselves. Owen believed that happy and healthy Amik would produce more. But other industrialists did not follow the oven. Anyway, his above experiment failed. Nevertheless, these movements made a strong point in the direction of social change. (7) Reform by social legislation – England was the most victim of the above problems. Therefore, it is to his credit that he also took the initiative to control the situation through social legislations. Parliament became factory-control and a platform for social reform. In 1802, the first Factory Act was passed, by which some government industries were prohibited from working for more than 12 hours a day for children below the age of nine years. Later in 1832, 1842, 1847 and 1855, efforts were made to improve the working conditions of the workers by passing the Factory Act. These legislations became the norm for other countries as well.

( 8 ) Plenty of intellectual creation – Intellectual development was also abundant in the 19th century. New ideas and philosophies arose in all spheres of society. It seemed as if in the 19th century different ideological camps were making their own claims that according to them there could be welfare of man and society. In the field of politics, conservatism, liberalism, nationalism, socialism and Marxism developed as strong thought philosophies. In the field of sociology also, many schools of thought emerged, such as developmentalism, progressivism, realism, technological decisionism, economic decisionism, socialism, sociologicalism etc. Along with classicalism, Romanticism, Realism, Pragmatism, Impressionism developed in the field of art and literature. It was also natural for this type of intellectual creativity to develop in this century, because the means of transport and communication had tied the world into a single unit, as if the whole world had become a major market for the industries of Western Europe. Be . Nationalism had developed and its dominance over other streams of politics had increased. 1848 AD is the year of a new turning point in European society. State revolutions took place in many European countries this year, which proved that plain liberalism could not solve the problems. Only a strong central government and revolutionary ideology can solve the problems.

 


Other important changes also took place in the field of industry in the second half of the 19th century. Industrialization was no longer the monopoly of England, but it had now spread throughout Europe and America. The United States of America had grown rapidly into a world power. Small industrialists or traders were starting to disappear in front of big industries and monopolistic organizations. The continuous achievements of science had made the dream of the Enlightenment almost possible that eventually human society would attain perfection.

 


Dunbaugh rightly wrote, “Just as the Renaissance had the worship of the past, the 18th century was the worship of logic, so was the later years of the 19th century the worship of science.” In Inbaugh’s own words, we The analysis of the social and economic conditions of the 19th century can be concluded. He wrote that “the 19th century was the golden age of Europe. Like the 5th century BC in Greece and the Renaissance in Italy, so too the capitalist society had reached its maturity, which was both producing and reaping cultural crops.” “The intellectual context of the development of sociology (the Enlightenment) and social, economic and political forces (mainly the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution) resulted in the development of ideologies such as secularism, humanism, individualism, liberalism, nationalism, socialism, Marxism, which developed human rights. affected every sphere of social life.

From them also developed a new social philosophy whose goal was to make possible the development of all the powers inherent in man and to make his life on this earth enjoyable. It is this philosophy which has played an important role in the development of sociology and that is why this social philosophy has been called the cornerstone of the development of sociology. The above contemporary conditions gave rise to thinkers like St. Simon of France, Karl Marx of Germany, who presented the outline of a new social science. August Comte named this new science, while Spencer and Durkheim distinguished it. Bothmore says that in this way the pre-history of sociology is related to that period of hundred years which is from about 1740 AD to 1850 AD.

 


He developed the following sociology in the 19th century.

Three features have also been mentioned

 


(1) it was encyclopaedic, (2) it was evolutionary and (3) it was positive. The interest of early scholars in social reform has also played an important role in the development of sociology. Due to rapid industrialization from 1880 to 1920, interest in the study of social change developed and by the beginning of the 20th century it had attained the status of a science. As a result of the close relationship between social reform and social research, empirical research was encouraged and policy makers started looking to sociologists to solve problems, which led to practical research.

 


Harry M. Johnson is of the view that today sociology is certainly a science, although it is slightly behind other sciences. It has the following characteristics of science

 


(1) Sociology is empirical, because it is based on logical thinking.

 


(2) It is theoretical, because in this rules are made on the basis of causal relationship of events.

 


(3) It is cumulative, that is, sociological theories are formed on the basis of one on the other.

 


(4) It is non-ethical i.e. the task of the sociologist is to explain the facts, not to tell them good or bad. After France, the study of sociology in America first started from Yale University in 1876 AD and most of the development of this subject has happened in America itself. American sociologists are Sumner, Ross, Sorokin, Ogovern and Nimkoff, MacIver and Page, Young, Lundberg, Zimmerman, Parsons, Merton, Kingsley Davis etc. Today, although sociology is one of the most popular subjects in France, America, England and Germany, yet there is hardly any country in the world in which sociology is not being studied. The development of sociology in India as a separate and institutional subject took place in 1919, while the Department of Sociology was formed under the chairmanship of Patrick Guddis in Bombay University.

 

This subject has developed in an attempt to understand the radical changes taking place in Europe and the problems arising out of them. Today sociology is considered an important subject both from the theoretical and practical point of view. In all the countries of the world, this science is gaining a leading position in comparison to other social sciences, a person is a curious creature due to his nature and due to this curious tendency, he has learned various types of social, economic and social sciences prevalent in his time from the very beginning. Trying to understand political problems. Various aspects of society have been mentioned in different ways in the ancient texts of India. For example, Vedic literature and Hindu scriptures (such as Upanishads, Mahabharata and Gita etc.) give a systematic description of many important social aspects like varna and caste system, joint family system, ashram system, various rites and credit system, which are important in today’s sociological sciences. not less than any of the parameters of the analyses. Aristotle’s book ‘Politics’, Plato’s ‘Republic’ and Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ are such texts in which various aspects of society have been discussed.

Although the study of social aspects has a long tradition, the emergence and development of sociology as an institutional subject occurred in the 19th century when Auguste Comte first used the term ‘sociology’ in 1838 AD. He was of the view that there is no single subject which can study various aspects of society as a whole. To overcome this shortcoming, he created this new subject. Although the sociology of the nineteenth century has been considered as a positive science, whose influence was similar to the natural sciences, yet it was evolutionary due to the influence of the philosophy of history and biological theories. Along with this, studies related to the entire life and entire history of man were done, that is, its nature was encyclopedic. To understand a new science like sociology, it is necessary to study its origin and development.

 


The origin and development of sociology is due to the social conditions of Western Europe. The Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Enlightenment played an important role in its development. These not only led to the development of a new method of economic activity (called capitalism) in Western societies, but they also had a profound effect on the social structure of these countries. With the development of secular outlook, social mobility, increase in education and employment, migration from villages to cities, many social problems also started developing. The number of industrial laborers and agricultural laborers increased and they started being exploited in production work. A large number of Africans were enslaved in the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries to serve capitalism. Although slavery began to decline in the beginning of the nineteenth century, it is still practiced today in the form of bonded labor in many colonial countries. All these changes and problems are the result of thinking by the scholars.

As a result, sociology has developed.

 


In the 19th century, many intellectual and physical conditions helped the development of sociology, out of which four intellectual conditions have been considered important by T. B. Bottomore.

 


The following are the circumstances

(1) Political Philosophy,

(2) The philosophy of history,

(3) Biological theories of evolution and

(4) The movement for social and political reform. Two of these, the philosophy of history and the social survey (which began as a result of the movements), made important contributions in the beginning.

 


The philosophy of history as a distinct branch dates back to the eighteenth century, initiated by Abbe de Saint-Pierre and Giambattista Vieo. The general idea of ​​progress which he tried to create seriously influenced the conception of history of man. The influence of philosophy of history is clearly visible in the works of Montesquieu and Voltaire in France, Herder in Germany and Scottish historians and philosophers such as Ferguson, Miller, Robertson, etc. can be seen.

 


The philosophy of history became a major intellectual influence in the early 19th century as a result of the writings of Hegel and Saint Simon. The works of Karl Marx and Auguste Comte developed from these two thinkers. The new concept of society, which is different from the notion of state, is the product of philosophical historians. The second important element helpful in the development of modern sociology can be called social survey, which had two main sources – first, the belief that the methods of natural science can be used in the study of social phenomena and human activities and second, the belief that Poverty is not nature or divine wrath but it can be removed by human effort. These movements for social reform as a result of both these beliefs were directly related to the social conditions of Western Europe of the 18th and 19th centuries. Due to the interest in social change, attention was paid to historical and social movements. All the early thinkers associated with the development of sociology were influenced by the social, economic and political conditions or forces prevailing in Western Europe in the 19th century. This is the historical background from which sociology emerged.

 


many scholars; For example, Baldridge has described the then social, economic and political conditions which inspired the development of sociology. These conditions are as follows

 


(1) Rapid and revolutionary social change – Baldridge has rightly written, “The more rapid change that was taking place in the 19th century, did not happen at any other period in history. Three of these rapid social changes in this century were the main reasons

(i) Industrial Revolution – 1750 AD is considered to be the beginning year of Industrial Revolution in England. This revolution was completed in about a hundred years i.e. 1850 AD. This revolution introduced the use of large machines in the process of production of goods. These machines are the root sources of power; For example, they were powered by steam. Technology based on the use of machines in production started modern industries. Instead of land, industries became the main source of wealth. The old cottage industries collapsed. To work in factories and factories, laborers started coming and gathering. Hand artisans became unemployed and were forced to work in factories. Large quantities of raw materials began to be consumed for mass production. The expansion of the market also became necessary for the sale of manufactured goods. It became natural for the countries of Western Europe to seek international markets. Industrialization destroyed feudalism based on land income. As a result of the mutual competition of the industrialists and the tendency to earn maximum profit, the condition of the workers in the factories became pathetic. 12 14 Hours It was natural that women and children were also employed in the mines because they were cheaper laborers than men. There was no provision of air and light. There were no rules for compensation even if the worker became ill in the business or in case of mutilation or death in an accident. The industrial cities had become a witness to the painful poverty that surrounds the prosperity. The old social values ​​and traditions were no longer helpful in meeting the needs of the common people. New values ​​and traditions were not fully developed.

(11) Urban Revolution – It is clear that industries started in the cities. Thus, rapid urbanization took place. Migration from villages to cities helped to spread the ideals and values ​​of urban life to the towns and villages. The development of a social system based on formality got impetus. The increasingly complex division of labor and specialization also contributed to this urbanisation. The invention of the steam locomotive made a difference in the field of transport.

I brought a new revolution. A network of railways began to be laid in every nation. This led to an unimaginable expansion of not only the transport but also the communication vehicle. Urbanization led to the decline of small agricultural communities.

 

 

 

(iii) Political ups and downs Although parliamentary power reached its zenith under Cromwell’s leadership in England only in the seventeenth century, when King Charles I was sentenced to death on 30 January 1649, French political The revolution (1789-1799) put the final stamp on the development of democracy. Earlier, the revolution in America (1783-1789) proved to be a necessary link in the development of a system of people’s participation on the basis of democracy, equality in politics, fraternity and freedom. The 19th century has gradually become the century of the development of the republican system. These revolutions affected human society on a global scale. Baldridge has rightly written that “The political ups and downs – which started in the last years of the 18th century by the French and American revolutions shook the society. These revolutions played the trumpeter of the process of destruction of monarchy and feudalism.”

 


(2) Confrontation with different cultures – The process of colonizing the countries of Europe – Spain, France, England, Portugal, Denmark – in America, Africa and Asia had started in the 16th century itself. In the 19th century, the empires established by these powers in different countries were at their peak. As a result, the people of Europe came into contact with societies which were completely different from them. He saw that in the world there are great variations of marriage, family, religion, ideals. In human societies social life has been successfully organized and structured on the basis of various ideals and values. These cultural contacts had two natural consequences – first, vast facts about human societies were gathered, on the basis of which it was easy to arrive at general conclusions about the structure and dynamics of human society. Second, experiences with different cultures inspired the inhabitants of Europe to take a critical look at their own societies as well. Thus, social criticism gained legitimacy.

 


(3) Scientific Revolution – In the 19th century, the physical sciences achieved unprecedented achievements. In fact, this scientific revolution had started in the beginning of the 17th century itself. In the words of historian Edwin Dunbaugh, “The term (scientific revolution) refers to a change in attitude that occurred over 1600 years in the way of studying the natural world. It was burned that he dared to say that the universe is infinite. By 1700 AD Sir Isaac Newton, who was trying to find the laws of how the infinite universe operated, was considered to be Europe’s greatest Considered a respected person. Due to the inclusion of experiments and empirical research in the methods of study of the world, a phase started in the field of science which changed the form of society, social life from top to bottom. It was natural. that these scientific methods be used in social studies.In the 19th century it was emphasized that scientific approach and method should be used in understanding social structure and problems.

 


(4) Climax of secularism – It was only in the first half of the 19th century that secularization reached its climax. This process was initiated in the Renaissance in Italy, which lasted from 1350 to 1550. This process was also strengthened by the political literary events that took place in Europe from 1715 to 1789 AD. In fact, in Europe these 75 years are called the ‘Age of Reason’. For centuries Europe had been influenced or governed by religion (the organized church). Every sphere of honor’s life was influenced by religion. to say anything against religious texts or priests

It was considered to be propaganda of superstition, whose punishment was to be burnt alive by tying it to a pole. The king was also considered to be the son of a god, who had the divine rights of the ruler. Under these circumstances there was nothing for the common man in this world except persecution, they were born there to atone for their sins. So he could only imagine getting some happiness in the other world after his death. The process of Renaissance started in Italy, Protestant rebellion and scientific achievements freed man from the shackles of religion. All these powers instilled faith in secularism in the mind of the common man. Secularism does not mean ‘opposition to religion’ or ‘neutrality to religion’ or ‘secularism’.

It means that the world is real. Human life is very rewarding. He can improve his material condition by his hard work. Religion is a method of worship and gratitude towards God and it should be confined to that only. It is his duty to make progress in his business. By earning money from him, he can live in this world with opulence and happiness. This is his absolute right. He can make additions, amendments and changes in his social, political and economic system judiciously. In enhancing this cosmic life, not only

He is capable but it is his moral duty to do so. Religion should be kept beyond these matters. Social, economic and political activities are secular activities, not religious activities. This secularism emphasized the ideals of equality, efficiency and order for the governance. Established ideals like humanism, equality, fundamental rights of the individual and free social mobility for the social structure. Thus, many such religious injunctions that were against the study of society disappeared by the first half of the 19th century. This paved the way for the scientific study of society.

(5) Social problems and their scientific study – Industrialization gave rise to many problems. We would like to quote Baldridge again because he has written in a very accurate commentary on the problems of 19th century European society, “Social conditions became particularly difficult in the 19th century because the Industrial Revolution and rapid urbanization caused great suffering. Child labor, painful shoplifting, common disputes, horrific housing conditions, the disastrous consequences of centuries of war had all become a part of the social scene. He started thinking on these problems from a scientific point of view. Their scientific explanation and diagnosis became the focus of their curiosity. This gave impetus to the idea of ​​social restructuring. For example, Marx pointed out the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie at the root of these problems and suggested its solution in the proletarian revolution itself. Durkheim suggested a way out of these problems in the development of professional codes of conduct and the formation of professional unions. The study of these problems also proved the importance of social survey. (6) Many social reform movements – Many social reform movements emerged in such times. Social messages and ‘Mukti Vahini’ were such religious movements which were working for social reform. Major labor unions emerged, which were committed to safeguarding the interests of workers and improving working conditions. New political parties emerged which were formed on the basis of ideology based on new consciousness. The French socialist thinker Saint Simon suggested that the administration of industry and government should be synonymous with the aim of serving the maximum interests of all.

 

 

 

Be fulfilled. Charles Fourier started the movement that the state should be abolished, instead society should be formed in small ideal settlements (phalanges) and every person should get the right to do the work for which he is most suitable. Is .

 


In England, Robert Owen (1771-1858) established an ideal factory, which was to be administered by the workers themselves. Owen believed that happy and healthy Amik would produce more. But other industrialists did not follow the oven. Anyway, his above experiment failed. Nevertheless, these movements made a strong point in the direction of social change. (7) Reform by social legislation – England was the most victim of the above problems. Therefore, it is to his credit that he also took the initiative to control the situation through social legislations. Parliament became factory-control and a platform for social reform. In 1802, the first Factory Act was passed, by which some government industries were prohibited from working for more than 12 hours a day for children below the age of nine years. Later in 1832, 1842, 1847 and 1855, efforts were made to improve the working conditions of the workers by passing the Factory Act. These legislations became the norm for other countries as well. ( 8 ) Plenty of intellectual creation – Intellectual development was also abundant in the 19th century. New ideas and philosophies arose in all spheres of society. It seemed as if in the 19th century different ideological camps were making their own claims that according to them there could be welfare of man and society. In the field of politics, conservatism, liberalism, nationalism, socialism and Marxism developed as strong thought philosophies.

In the field of sociology also, many schools of thought emerged, such as developmentalism, progressivism, realism, technological decisionism, economic decisionism, socialism, sociologicalism etc. Along with classicalism, Romanticism, Realism, Pragmatism, Impressionism developed in the field of art and literature. It was also natural for this type of intellectual creativity to develop in this century, because the means of transport and communication had tied the world into a single unit, as if the whole world had become a major market for the industries of Western Europe. Be . Nationalism had developed and its dominance over other streams of politics had increased. 1848 AD is the year of a new turning point in European society. State revolutions took place in many European countries this year, which proved that plain liberalism could not solve the problems. Only a strong central government and revolutionary ideology can solve the problems.

 


Other important changes also took place in the field of industry in the second half of the 19th century. Industrialization was no longer the monopoly of England, but it had now spread throughout Europe and America.

  1. The United States of America had grown rapidly into a world power. Small industrialists or traders were starting to disappear in front of big industries and monopolistic organizations. The continuous achievements of science had made the dream of the Enlightenment almost possible that eventually human society would attain perfection.

 


Dunbaugh rightly wrote, “Just as the Renaissance had the worship of the past, the 18th century was the worship of logic, so was the later years of the 19th century the worship of science.” In Inbaugh’s own words, we The analysis of the social and economic conditions of the 19th century can be concluded. He wrote that “the 19th century was the golden age of Europe. Like the 5th century BC in Greece and the Renaissance in Italy, so too the capitalist society had reached its maturity, which was both producing and reaping cultural crops.” “The intellectual context of the development of sociology (the Enlightenment) and social, economic and political forces (mainly the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution) resulted in the development of ideologies such as secularism, humanism, individualism, liberalism, nationalism, socialism, Marxism, which developed human rights. affected every sphere of social life. From them also developed a new social philosophy whose goal was to make possible the development of all the powers inherent in man and to make his life on this earth enjoyable. It is this philosophy which has played an important role in the development of sociology and that is why this social philosophy has been called the cornerstone of the development of sociology. The above contemporary conditions gave rise to thinkers like St. Simon of France, Karl Marx of Germany, who presented the outline of a new social science. August Comte named this new science, while Spencer and Durkheim distinguished it. Bothmore says that in this way the pre-history of sociology is related to that period of hundred years which is from about 1740 AD to 1850 AD.

 


He also mentions the following three features of sociology developed in the 19th century

 


(1) it was encyclopaedic, (2) it was evolutionary and (3) it was positive. The interest of early scholars in social reform has also played an important role in the development of sociology. Due to rapid industrialization from 1880 to 1920, interest in the study of social change developed and by the beginning of the 20th century it had attained the status of a science. As a result of the close relationship between social reform and social research, empirical research was encouraged and policy makers started looking to sociologists to solve problems, which led to practical research.

 


Harry M. Johnson is of the view that today sociology is certainly a science, although it is slightly behind other sciences. It has the following characteristics of science

 


(1) Sociology is empirical, because it is based on logical thinking.

 


(2) It is theoretical, because in this rules are made on the basis of causal relationship of events.

 


(3) It is cumulative, that is, sociological theories are formed on the basis of one on the other.

 


(4) It is non-ethical i.e. the task of the sociologist is to explain the facts, not to tell them good or bad. After France, the study of sociology in America first started from Yale University in 1876 AD and most of the development of this subject has happened in America itself. American sociologists are Sumner, Ross, Sorokin, Ogovern and Nimkoff, MacIver and Page, Young, Lundberg, Zimmerman, Parsons, Merton, Kingsley Davis etc. Today, although sociology is one of the most popular subjects in France, America, England and Germany, yet there is hardly any country in the world in which sociology is not being studied. The development of sociology in India as a separate and institutional subject took place in 1919, while the Department of Sociology was formed under the chairmanship of Patrick Guddis in Bombay University.

 

 

Sociology : A Tick – Experimental Science

 

 Pareto’s main effort in his scientific studies was to find the means by which irrational grounds affecting human behavior could be discussed from a logical point of view. Pareto never agreed with Weblin and other scholars who wanted to analyze human behavior on the basis of economic principles. opposite of this , Pareto believed that economic theories themselves should be discussed on the basis of sociological concepts. Through this approach, those characteristics related to human behavior can be understood correctly, in the discussion of which economic analysis and many other abstract theories have been proved. In this context, Pareto made it clear that the development of sociological theories must be based on such a rationale which can give the right direction to economic and political thought.

What can be the form of sociology? Clarifying this, Pareto wrote that sociology is that social science whose main function is to obtain a logical-experimental basis for analyzing the irrational actions of individuals. From this point of view, sociology should study those motivations which influence the irrational actions of people as a means of social life. Sociology is that social science whose main function is to obtain a logical-experimental basis for analyzing the irrational actions of individuals. From this point of view, sociology should study those motivations which influence the irrational actions of people as a means of social life. Sociology is that social science whose main function is to obtain a logical-experimental basis for analyzing the irrational actions of individuals. From this point of view, sociology should study those motivations which influence the irrational actions of people as a means of social life.

 

This is the reason that many scholars have addressed Pareto’s sociology as ‘Psychological Sociology’. The reality is that the concepts with the help of which Pareto tried to give a new form to socio-classical thinking, there must be some degree of psychological elements in them, but basically his sociology is called ‘coordinating sociology’. The same can be said. This science is synergistic from the point of view that only through this the bases affecting human behavior can be understood which are not possible to study by other social sciences. Even after this, various social sciences are related to sociology because they can help sociology to know the effect of various factors through their studies and can also benefit from sociological concepts themselves. Thus Pareto wanted to develop a science in the form of sociology in which logical theories could be developed on the basis of similarities of different types of social phenomena.

 

Thus Pareto named his sociology as ‘Logical Experimental Science’. The reason for this is that as a science it can be developed only with the help of logical experimental method.

Takiq – Experimental Method

( Logico – Experimental Method )

 

 Being primarily a graduate of science, Pareto believed that sociology could be developed as a science only if it had a scientific method of its own. Before Pareto, many scholars had emphasized on adopting the method of physical sciences for socio-classical studies, but Pareto in his book ‘Treatments on General Sociology’ called the methods described by Kaut, Spencer and many other scholars as ‘false scientism’ ( Opposed them, giving the name of Pseudo-Scientism. Pareto was of the clear opinion that the methods by which the subject matter of physical sciences are studied are not suitable for sociological studies. The method which is needed for scientific sociology is observation. It should be related to objective experiences and reasoned conclusions drawn from them. In fact, sociology is a syncretic science, so the study related to it should be based on observation and testing. Pareto named this method of study as ‘Taqik experimental method’. The Italian word ‘Experienza’ used by Pareto refers not to experiments to be done purely, but to observation and, when necessary, that controlled observation with the help of which the results obtained can be substantiated.

Thus, logical-experimental is that method which gives importance to the experiments based on observation and has the ability to prove the results obtained from them by reasoning. According to Pareto, the meaning of logic is that the correlation between different events is found on the basis of observation, The results obtained from it should be presented authentically. The word experimental includes the characteristics of both observation and experiment. Natural sciences are experimental because the concepts related to them can be developed only through experiments, unlike them, for sociological studies, controlled observation can be considered as a supplement to the experiment.

 

From this point of view, for Sociology, the experimental method is a method by which empirical similarities or regular relations living between different facts can be found. On the above basis, Pareto clarified that sociology can be developed as a science only when various social phenomena are studied on the basis of experience, facts are examined by observation and experiment and found between different facts. Logical rules should be made on the basis of the observed similarities. In other words, it can be said that facts or phenomena which cannot be studied on the basis of observation and examination, should be kept separate from sociological study. It is possible that the results obtained by this method are contrary to common beliefs, but the purpose of science is to present the real laws, Not satisfying people’s feelings. The characteristics on the basis of which Pareto clarified the nature of the Takik-experimental method can be briefly understood as follows:

 

(1) Emperical – According to Pareto, the logical-experimental method is concerned with presenting only true facts. True facts are only those which are obtained by observation or examination and so that their truth can be proved. Thus, by this method those facts which are outside the scope of observation, examination and reasoning cannot be studied.

 

(2) Emotion – Inferiority (Non-Ethical) – There is no place for personal feelings or emotions in the practical method. The reason for this is that the facts obtained from observation or experiments can be explained only on the basis of logic and not on the basis of emotion. This means that this method is not concerned with any imaginary idea or misconception of ‘what should be’ but emphasizes on presenting facts ‘as-is’. Pareto accepted that this is possible due to the predominance of observation or observation in this method. That various arguments should be presented on the basis of the personal feelings of the student, that is why he suggests that it is very important for the studyer to avoid any such fault.

 

 (3) Simplicity – According to Pareto, simplicity is an essential quality of science. This means that the results obtained by this method

 

They should be discussed in a simple manner. Logical-experimental method is related to presenting facts in a simple way in the same way as this work is done in natural sciences. Simplicity is mainly related to orderliness, succinct presentation and clarity of thought.

 

 (4) Study of Unknown Facts – Pareto. It holds that “the scientific method of study is to interpret unknown facts by means of known facts.” Let it be explained. In other words it can be said that it is a wrong way to understand the characteristics of the present society on the basis of the characteristics of the past. If we know what are the characteristics of the present society, then on the basis of this we can understand our past also in a more authentic way. Thus Pareto said that by understanding the known facts of present society through logical-experimental method, we can also understand those facts of the past which have remained unknown till now.

 

 (5) Search of Dependable Factors According to Pareto, no single factor is responsible for social events. Every event in society is related to many other events. Thus it cannot be accepted that any social phenomenon is the result of any one factor. The logical-experimental method is concerned with the search for factors that can be considered more dependable or reliable for analysis and analysis. Referring to this feature, Pareto suggested that dependent factors can be discovered only through experiments done by controlled observation.

 

 (6) Quantitative Analysis – From his early life, Pareto considered mathematics as the language of science. From this point of view, he considered the use of mathematics necessary under the practical method. This means that Pareto was not in favor of qualitative study of society, rather he gave more importance to the computational or statistical analysis of social facts under this method. From the nature of sociology as a logical-experimental science presented by Pareto, it is clear that you are not ready to accept any such theory, fact or rule under sociology which cannot be proved by experimental method. Can it In other words, individualistic Emotion-oriented and highly ethical facts are outside the subject matter of sociology. Pareto accepted that some facts which are outside the logical-experimental method can sometimes be useful for social life but they cannot be called true or real. Thus whatever is useful, even if it is true, it is not necessary. On this basis Pareto concluded that sociology can be made scientific only on the basis of logical-experimental method.

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